OSI (Open System Interconnection)

❑OSI was Developed by the International Organization For Standardization (ISO)

and introduced in 1984.
❑It is a layered architecture.
❑Each layers define a set of functions which takes part in data communication.
❑Based upon OSI model Physical, Datalink, and network are called network
support layer (Here we are creating physical topology).
❑Session , Presentation, and Application layer are called user support layer (where
logical topology comes into picture).
❑Network support layer technically called underlay connectivity and user support
layer is called overlay connectivity.
Application Layer
❑It is responsible for providing a user interface for the users to interact with
applications or networking services.

Or

❑The Application Layer provides support to user systems by allowing them to

access network resources.
For example, it enables services like email, remote file access and transfer, and
shared database management.
Application Layer Protocol are:
Services Port No
FTP → 20, 21
TFTP → 69
TELNET → 23
HTTP → 80
SMTР → 25
POP3 → 110(us), 995(SSL/TLS)
IMAP4 → 143, 993
NNTР → 119, 563
IRC → 194, 6697
Presentation Layer
❑It is responsible for defining the standard format to the data.
❑The major functions described at this layers are:-

Translation (Encoding and Decoding) (text to ASCII or UNICODE, Video/autdio – Stream

Data)
Encryption – Decryption (plain text – Cipher text)
Compression –Decompression (big file to gzip)
P: Translation (Encoding and Decoding)
When sending data:
❑The Presentation Layer encodes the data into a common format so it can travel
across the network.
❑Example: Converting characters to ASCII or Unicode, or formatting video/audio
into a streamable format.

When receiving data:

❑The Presentation Layer decodes the incoming data back into a format the
application can understand.
❑Example: Turning binary or encoded video/audio back into something viewable
or readable.
P: Encryption and Decryption
❑The Presentation Layer is responsible for applying encryption before sending
data and decryption when receiving it — if security is required.

When Sending Data:

1.Data comes from the Application Layer (e.g., email content).
2.The Presentation Layer uses an encryption algorithm (like AES or DES).
3.It converts the readable data (plaintext) into ciphertext.
4.Ciphertext is passed down the stack to be sent over the network.

When Receiving Data:

1.Ciphertext is received from the lower layers.
2.The Presentation Layer decrypts it using the correct key and algorithm.
3.It turns the data back into plaintext for the Application Layer to use.
P: Compression and Decompression
What is Compression?
Compression means making data smaller in size so it can be sent faster over the
network.
❑It reduces the number of bits used to represent the data.
❑This helps save bandwidth and speeds up transmission.

What is Decompression?
Decompression means restoring the original data from the compressed version
after it is received.
❑It ensures the receiving system gets the exact same data that was originally sent.
Presentation Layer Protocols
1. MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
❑Used to format multimedia content in email and web communications.
❑Helps email clients understand how to handle images, audio, video, etc.

2. SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer / Transport Layer Security)

❑Provides encryption and data integrity between two communicating
applications.
❑While it's often implemented between Presentation and Session layers, its
encryption function is a Presentation Layer responsibility.

3. XDR (External Data Representation)

❑Used in Remote Procedure Call (RPC) systems to ensure platform-independent
data formatting.
Presentation Layer Protocols
4. ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation One)
❑A standard interface used in SNMP, LDAP, and telecom protocols to describe
data structures for cross-platform communication.

5. JPEG, MPEG, GIF, PNG

❑These are data format standards for images and video compression handled at
the Presentation Layer.

6. GZIP, DEFLATE
❑Compression algorithms used in HTTP and other protocols for efficient data
transmission.
Session Layer
It Establishes, Manages and Terminate the Connections between the Local and
Remote Application. It Provides Full-Duplex, Half-Duplex, Simplex Operation and
Establishes Procedures which is to check pointing, Suspending, Restarting and
Terminating Session.
❑When an application wants to communicate, it requests a session from the
Session Layer.
❑Example: When you log into a website, a session is created to manage your
connection during your interaction.
Session Layer Protocols
Protocol / Service Description
Allows a program to execute a procedure on another
RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
system as if it were local.
Used in Windows systems for session-level
NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)
communication between networked computers.
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) Creates VPN sessions and encapsulates PPP frames.
While primarily an application protocol, SQL session
SQL (Structured Query Language)
management occurs at this layer.
Uses session management to allow file access across
NFS (Network File System)
networks.
Manages sessions in Apple's legacy AppleTalk protocol
ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol)
suite.
Used in VoIP and video calls to establish, manage, and
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
terminate sessions.
Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for delivering data between two applications.
The Major functions described at this layer are:-
❑Reliable Data Transfer
❑Identifying a service
❑Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
❑Segmentation
❑Sequencing & Reassembling
❑Error Correction
❑Flow Control ( Solution: Sliding Window Protocol: minBW (Client & Server), for 3 segments one ack)
Transport Layer Protocols
Protocol Type Description
Ensures reliable, ordered, and
TCP (Transmission Control
Connection-oriented error-checked delivery of data (e.g.,
Protocol)
web, email, file transfer).
Fast, lightweight, but unreliable —
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Connectionless no guarantee of delivery (used in
streaming, DNS, VoIP).
Supports multiple streams in a
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission
Hybrid single connection, used in telecom
Protocol)
(like VoLTE).
Designed for real-time apps (e.g.,
DCCP (Datagram Congestion Connection-oriented but media streaming) that need
Control Protocol) unreliable congestion control but not
guaranteed delivery.
Network Layer
❑It provides the logical addressing and path determination.
❑This Layer Applies Policies on User Traffic and Filter Request according to
Topology.
❑Router and layer-3 Firewalls works on Network Layer.
❑It can filter traffic based on IP addresses and routing rules.
Network Layer Protocols
The protocols that works in this layer are:-
i. Routed protcols
❑ It carries actual user data from host to host.
❑Ex:- Ip, Ipx, Appletalk, Ipsec
ii. Routing Protocols
❑ It is used to find the best path from source to destination.
❑Ex:- Rip, Eigrp, Ospf, Bgp
Datalink Layer
❑Its main job is to manage how data is sent and received between devices on the
same local network (like between your computer and a router).
❑This Layer is Responsible to Convert Physical Layer Functionality into Reliable
Link.
❑It Detects and Correct Errors which occur in the Physical Layer.
❑This Layer has divided Into Two Sub Parts. MAC and Logical Link Control (LLC).
❑LLC is used to controls the Synchronization, Flow Control and Error-Checking.
Based upon the Function there are Three Types of Switches works on Data Link
Layer. These are-> Cut-Through, Fragment-Free, Store & Forward.
❑LLC: provides communication with network layer
❑MAC: provides a reliable transmission of the data across a physical link. (Ethernet
and Token ring)
Datalink Layer Protocols
❑HDLC: protocol used for synchronous, point-to-point and multipoint
communication over serial links
❑SDLC → Old IBM protocol for mainframes.
❑PPP → Dial-up & direct connections (with login).
❑Frame Relay → Fast WAN connections (like leased lines).
❑ATM → High-speed fixed-size cell transfers (for voice/video).
❑MACSec → A security protocol for Layer 2 that provides encryption and
integrity for Ethernet frames.
❑VXLAN → It creates layer2 overlay
❑SPB (Shortest Path Bridging) → Replace older spanning-tree protocols with
better convergence and support for larger networks
Physical Layer
❑The Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits (0s and 1s) over a
physical medium — such as copper wire, fiber optics, or radio waves.
❑Or
❑It defines the electrical, mechanical and functional specifications for
communication between the network devices.
❑The Major functions described at this layer are:-
Encoding – Decoding (converting binary data into signals based on the type of
media).
Copper media: electrical signals for different voltages
Fiber media: Light pulses for different wavelength
Wireless media: Radio Frequency waves
❑Components: Physical Layer components are Ethernet, Bluetooth, USB Standards.