CLASS : 10TH

Notes : Control & Coordination - Human Beings

The Nervous System

 The nervous system is a highly complex regulatory system in animals. It not only coordinates actions but also transmits
sensory information and signals to/from the different parts of the body.
 The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the entire system.
 The ability of an organism to move a particular body part is known as a movement. The ability of an
organism to move its whole body from one place to another is known as locomotion. The organisms
undertake movement as a response to stimuli.

More About the Neuron

Neurons (also known as neurones, nerve cells and nerve fibers) are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system
that function to process and transmit information. In vertebrate animals, neurons are the core components of the brain, spinal
cord and peripheral nerves.
The primary components of the neuron are the soma (cell body), the axon (a long slender projection that conducts electrical
impulses away from the cell body), dendrites (tree-like structures that receive messages from other neurons), and synapses
(specialized junctions between neurons).

The animal nervous system is made up of specialized tissues which are known as nervous tissues. The neuron is the structural
and functional unit of the nervous system, which is responsible for coordinating and controlling the complex actions in animals.
Neurons are the specialized cells in the nervous system which are responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses and it is
divided into three parts-

1. Axon- axon is the tale of the neuron and it ends in fine hair-like structures known as axon terminals. This axon terminals
rely on the nerve impulses
2. Cyton/soma/cell body- the site on or cell body of neurons is star-shaped having various hair-like structures protruding
out of the margin. This hair like fine structures are known as dendrites which receive the nerve impulses
3. Myelin Sheath- the axon is covered by an insulator which is known as myelin Sheath. It insulates the axon against the
nerve impulse from its surroundings.

Dendrites receive the impulse from other neurons. Cyton process the impulse. The impulse is further transmitted to the Axon.
From there it gets transmitted either to other neurons or to the muscles for taking necessary action.. Impulse transmission is
faster in myelinated neurons.

Types of Neurons

 Sensory neurons- These neurons receive the signals from a sense organ
 Motor neurons- These neurons send the signals to a gland or muscle
 Relay or association neuron- These neurons relay the signals between a motor neuron and sensory neuron.

Synapse

Synapse is a small gap between two adjacent neurons. In other words, it is a point contact between terminal branches of the
axon of one neuron and with the dendrite of another neuron. Between the neurons, synapses convert the electric signals into
chemicals that can cross over the gap between the axon and dendrite. Then the chemical message is passed to the next neuron
and converted back to the electrical signal for interpretation. It also allowed the delivery of impulses from neurons to the cells
such as glands or muscle cells.

Limitations of electrical impulse:

• They reach only those cells that are connected by nervous tissue, and not every cell in the animal body.
• Once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will take some time to reset its mechanism
before it can generate and transmit a new impulse. / Takes sometime to reset its mechanism.

(any other limitation)

• In chemical communication the signals (chemical compound) potentially reach all cells of the body steadily and
persistently providing the desired changes.

How do Organisms Control and Coordinate?

Organisms move from one place to another in response to different kinds of stimuli like nutrients, food, water, heat, etc. All the
activities in the animal body are thoroughly controlled and coordinated by the nervous system and the Endocrine System.
Hormones are the core of the Endocrine System. They are also known as chemical messengers. Hormones are developed and
secreted by the endocrine glands. Hormones assist the nervous system in carrying out various functions in different parts of the
body.

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM : The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The (CNS) is the major division, and consists of the brain and the spinal
cord. The spinal canal contains the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity contains the brain.

 Human Brain : It is enclosed in cranium (brain box) and is protected by cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a shock
absorber. Human brain has three major parts or regions : (a) Fore-brain (b) Mid Brain (c) Hind Brain.
Fore-brain(CEREBRUM) Most complex/specialized part of the brain is Cerebrum or the forebrain. The cerebrum is the largest
part of the human brain and it is divided into two hemispheres known as cerebral hemispheres.

Functions

(a) It is responsible for learning and memory

(b) It is the site of sensory perception like auditory perception or tactile
(c) It controls voluntary motor actions
(d) The cerebrum is responsible for emotions, logic, reasoning, visual processing, speech, auditory and taste stimuli
recognition, etc.
(e) Thinking part of the brain
(f) Control the voluntary actions.
(g) Store information(Memory)
(h) Centre associated with HUNGER
(i) Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it
(b) Mid Brain
It connects the fore-brain with the hind-brain. It is the portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing,
motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.

© Hind-Brain

Cerebellum

The cerebellum lies right below the cerebrum and at the back of the brain structure. The cerebellum coordinates the motor
functions of the brain.

Functions

 It controls posture and balance

 It controls the precision of the voluntary actions
 The cerebellum is responsible for managing control and coordination, posture, and balance in the body.
 Pons manages the signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain.

Medulla
The medulla consists the brainstem along with ponds and it lies at the back of the brain and extends up to the spinal cord.
Medulla also controls the involuntary functions of the body like a heartbeat, respiration, etc.

 Medulla oblongata manages involuntary movements.

 Medulla oblongata continues to the spinal cord that runs across the vertebral column and regulates reflex actions.

 Brain : The human brain is the command centre for the human nervous system. It receives input from the sensory
organs and sends output to the muscles. The human brain has the same basic structure as other mammal brains, but is
larger in relation to body size than any other brains
 Brain is protected by a fluid called cerebro-spinal fluid which acts as shock absorber. It has several layers called
MENINGES.
 Spinal Cord : Spinal Cord is enclosed in Vertebral column.

The Central Nervous System

It is categorized into the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. The central
nervous system in the organisms is the primary control and coordination unit of the body. It is made up of the brain and the
spinal cord.The central nervous system is divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The function of the different parts of
the central nervous system are-

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system has nerves originating from the brain and spinal cord. The human body has 12 cranial nerves and
31 spinal nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system has all the nerves originating from the peripheral nervous system. It has two major divisions.
They are known as the sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems. A sympathetic nervous system regulates
the body for intense activities, and it is also known as the fight or flight response. The parasympathetic nervous system is quite
the opposite. It relaxes the body or slows down the high-energy functions of the body.

Reflex Action

REFLEX ACTION
Reflex action is an automatic response of the body to a stimulus. e.g. withdrawal of hand, knee jerk etc. on touching a hot plate.

Reflex arc : The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc.

 Voluntary means it is under the control of a person (e.g. writing)

 Involuntary means it is not under the control of a person. (e.g. heartbeat)
Mechanism of Reflex action: A reflex mechanism involves a receptor organ, an effector organ, and some type of communication
network. When a sensory receptor is stimulated, signals pass from it along a sensory neuron to the spinal cord. The message
travels out of the spinal cord along a motor neuron to the effector organ (e.g., a muscle or a gland), which shows the response.
Such a pathway is called a reflex arc. In most cases, however, the basic physiological mechanism behind a reflex is more
complicated than the reflex arc theory would suggest. Additional nerve cells capable of communicating with other parts of the
body (beyond the receptor and effector) are present in reflex circuits.

Reflex action is the involuntary action of the body in response to the stimuli generated from the reaction. Reflex arc refers to the
path followed by the electric impulse generated during the reflex action. The impulse that travels from any receptor organ to the
brain or the spinal cord is processed here. This information is brought back to the concerned origin (muscle) to carry out the
necessary action. Hence, the receptor organ, sensory neuron, interneuron, effector organ, and efferent neurons are the
components of the reflex arc.
****When a bright light hits your eyes, the following sequence of events occurs:
1.Photoreceptors: Light stimulates the photoreceptors in the retina
2.Electrical impulses: The photoreceptors convert the light into electrical signals
3.Sensory neurons: The impulses are carried to the sensory neurons
4.Spinal cord: The sensory neurons send the impulses to the spinal cord
5.Brain: The spinal cord sends the impulses to the brain
6.Motor neurons: The brain sends a response to the motor neurons
7.Eye muscles: The motor neurons contract the eye muscles
8.Pupil: The pupil contracts to reduce the amount of light entering the eye
This entire process is a reflex action that occurs rapidly. The iris controls the size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light
entering the eyes. This protects the retina from damage.

Role of the brain in a reflex action[Very Important]

Reflex action occurs as an auto-generated for an instantaneous response towards stimuli where an individual has no status to
give thought to the action. For example, sensory nerves are responsible for heat detection that is further connected to the
nerves to move hands instantly. Here the entire process of detecting the heat signal from the nervous and responding to it
towards moving the hand is referred to as a reflex arc. This reflex arc results in reflex action which is generated initially in the
spinal cord and then the information is sent to the brain. It helps the brain to record the action and remember it for future
reference. This information helps people to remain aware of similar stimuli or prevent themselves if the situation arises again.

Introduction to Receptors
Receptors : Are specialized tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the environment.
Receptors are sense Organs

Receptors in the nervous system and endocrine system of animals refers to the specialized nerve fibres that collect potential
information. Receptors are also known as the sense organs of the animals and they are majorly classified as-

 Phono receptors- these receptors are present in the inner ear. Their main function is hearing and maintaining the
balance of the body
 Photoreceptors- these receptors are present in the eye Their main function is supporting the visual stimuli
 Thermoreceptors- these receptors are present in and under the skin. They are responsible for touch, pain, and heat
 Olfactory receptors- these receptors are present in the nose. They assist in the smell
 Gustatory receptors- these receptors are present in the tongue. They assist in taste detection

Protection of the Central Nervous System

The brain is covered by the three main layers which are-

1. The bony skull (cranium)

2. The cerebrospinal fluid

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q.1.Explain the need of Chemical communication in multicellular organisms.
Ans. : In an organism cells cannot continuously create and transmit electrical impulses. Thus most multicellular organism use
another means of communication between different cells, called the chemical communication. In this A chemical compound is
released, which would diffuse all over around the original cells. Other, cell around will detect the compound using special
molecules. They can recognize and transmit the information carried by it. These compounds are called hormones.
The movement of the plant in the direction of the stimulus is called tropism.

Q.2.What name is given to the microscopic gap between two adjacent neurons?
Ans: The microscopic gap between two adjacent neurons is known as the synapse.

Q.3.If we step on something sharp accidentally, we move our foot away at once. What is this type of response known as?
Ans: This type of response is known as a reflex action.

Q.4.A man becomes unconscious due to head injury. A pin is picked onhis foot, he withdraws his foot. Why? Explain.
Ans. : Withdrawal of the foot when a pin is pricked on the foot is an example of the reflex action and reflex actions are
controlled by the spinal cord and not by the brain. Hence, although being injured on the head, the person will withdraw his foot.

The withdrawal of the foot when a pin is pricked is indeed an example of a reflex action, and it's primarily controlled by the
spinal cord, not the brain. Therefore, even with a head injury, the person would still withdraw their foot due to this spinal reflex.
  Reflex Action:
A reflex action is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
 Spinal Cord's Role:
Reflex actions are processed by the spinal cord, which acts as a central processing unit for these rapid responses. The signal
doesn't need to travel all the way to the brain for the action to occur.
 Withdrawal Reflex:
The withdrawal reflex is triggered by a painful stimulus, causing the limb to be pulled away from the source of pain.
 Impact of Head Injury:
While a head injury can affect brain function, it wouldn't prevent the spinal cord from carrying out its reflex actions. The
withdrawal reflex is an independent pathway, ensuring a quick response to protect the body

Q.5.Apart from the hindbrain, activities like walking, skating, riding a bicycle, and picking up a pencil are possible. Name this
part of the hindbrain.
Ans: The cerebellum is the part of the brain which maintains the posture and equilibrium of the body.

Q.6.Who transmits nerve impulses across the synapse?

Ans: Neurotransmitters are responsible for transmitting nerve impulses across the synapse.

Q.7.Represent schematically the path of a reflex action.

Ans: The path of a reflex action is represented below:

Q.8. What is the function of receptors in our body? What happens when receptors do not work properly?
Ans: The receptors detect information from the environment. If they do not work properly, the information will not be detected
or will be detected late, due to which further process will be delayed and the signals will take time reaching the spinal cord or
the brain. Hence, the response to the environmental stimulus will be delayed causing harm to the body.

Q.9.What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

Ans: Junctions of two neurons is called synapses. When a receptor detects a stimulus, chemicals is set off through the neurons.
These electric signals travel from the dendrite of the presynaptic neuron to its cell body and then along its axon. At the end of
axon of this neuron, the electrical impulse crosses the synapse and starts a similar electrical impulse in the dendrite of the next
neuron.

Q.10.Draw the structure of the neuron and explain its function.

Ans: The basic structure of a neuron has three components – (I)Cell body (ii)Dendrites (III)Axon
Function:
Junctions of two neurons is called synapses. When a receptor detects a stimulus, chemicals is set off through the neurons. These
electric signals travel from the dendrite of the presynaptic neuron to its cell body and then along its axon. At the end of axon of
this neuron, the electrical impulse crosses the synapse and starts a similar electrical impulse in the dendrite of the next neuron.

Q.11. Where are Pons and medulla oblongata located? Write their functions.
Ans: Pons and medulla Oblongata are located in hindbrain.

Function of Pons – it acts as a bridge between the brain and spinal cord.

Function of Medulla oblongata – it controls activities like salivation, swallowing, vomiting, breathing, coughing, sneezing,
heartbeat, sleep, consciousness and activities of the cerebrum.

Q.12.Define ‘nerve impulse’. Which structure in a neuron helps to conduct a nerve impulse,
(i)towards the cell body (ii)Away from the cell body?

Ans: Nerve Impulse is a wave of the passing of information through neurons in the form of electrical and chemical signals.
Dendrite helps to conduct a nerve impulse towards the cell body.
Ans: Nerve Impulse is a wave of the passing of information through neurons in the form of electrical and chemical signals. Axon
helps to conduct a nerve impulse away from the cell body.

Q.13.Differentiate between axon and dendrites?

Ans: Difference between axon and dendrites is:

Axon Dendrons

They are long. They are small.

It is only one. They are numerous.

They are unbranched. They are branched.

Terminal branches have swollen knobs. Terminal swollen knobs are absent.

Direction of the nerve impulse is away from the Direction of nerve impulse is towards the
cyton. cyton.

Q.14.Mention the structure of the human brain.

Ans: The structure of human brain is outlined below,
Q.15.Give the reason why endocrine glands release theft secretions into the blood?
Ans: Endocrine glands are ductless glands and hence instead of pouring their hormones into ducts, they release theft secretions
into the blood.
Q.16.List the function of testosterone and estrogen. Where are they secreted?
Ans: Testosterone is secreted in male bodies.
Function of testosterone – It is responsible for development of male sex organs and secondary sex characteristics like
moustache, beard & voice.
Estrogen is secreted in female bodies.
Function of estrogen – it is responsible for development of female sex organs and secondary sex characteristics like mammary
gland and uterine growth.
Q.17. Pituitary is a master endocrine gland. Justify this statement.
Ans: Pituitary gland is a master gland because it regulates the secretion of other endocrine glands such as -
Growth hormones , Thyroid stimulating hormone , Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus by nerve fibres and blood vessels. The
pituitary gland consists of Anterior lobe and Posterior lobe.