Types of Network Topology

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star, ring,
mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages .

There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e. Physical Network topology and
Logical Network Topology. Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the
physical medium for the transmission of data. Logical network Topology refers to the
transmission of data between devices present in the network irrespective of the way
devices are connected

Types of Network Topology

Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender
and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known
as links. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number
of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology,
various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections
like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up
to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are
well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with
100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-
Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit
the data.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration) are used.
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub
and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
dvantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these
can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types
of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been
discussed earlier.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible .
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices .
Here are some points that defines why network topology is important.
 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology as per requirement, it
helps in running the network easily and hence increases network performance.
 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable as if one connection
fails, they provide an alternative for that connection, hence it works as a backup.
 Network Expansion : Chosing correct topology helps in easier expansion of Network
as it helps in adding more devices to the network without disrupting the actual network.
 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how devices are
connected and hence provides a better security to the network.

First Generation Computers

The technology behind the primary generation of computers was a fragile glass device,
which was called a vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and really large.
These weren't very reliable, and programming on them was a tedious task as they used a
low-level programming language and had no OS. First-generation computers were used
for calculation, storage, and control purposes. They were too bulky and large; they
needed a full room and consumed a lot of electricity. Punch cards were used to improve
the information for external storage. Magnetic card used. Machine and assembly
language is developed.

Characteristic Description

Core Technology Utilized vacuum tubes for processing and switching

Physical Size Massive machines, often filling entire rooms

Power Consumption High power usage with significant heat generation

Slow operation due to the limitations of vacuum tube

Processing Speed technology

Programmed using machine language (binary code)

Programming Method and punched cards

Input/Output Method Relied on punch cards for input and output

Reliability Unreliable due to frequent breakdowns of vacuum

 Characteristic Description

tubes

Cost Extremely expensive to build, maintain, and operate

Memory Storage Magnetic drum memory for temporary data storage

Used for military calculations, scientific research,

Primary Use and cryptography

Examples of the first

IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC , UNIVAC1, etc.
generation

Advantages of First Generation Computer

 Computers can process large amounts of data quickly.
 They help in automating tasks, saving time and effort.
 They offer accurate results and minimize human errors.
 Computers can store vast amounts of information in digital form.
 They allow easy access to information and communication through the internet.
 They have made various tasks like calculations, research, and design more efficient.
Disadvantages of First-Generation of Computers
 They can be expensive to purchase and maintain.
 Computers can become slow or malfunction due to software or hardware issues.
 Prolonged use of computers can cause health problems like eye strain and poor
posture.
 They are dependent on electricity, so power outages can cause interruptions.
 Computers can be vulnerable to viruses and hacking, leading to data loss.
Second Generation of Computers
The second generation of computers was developed during the late 1950s to mid-1960s.
These computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes, which made them smaller,
faster, and more reliable than 1st generation. They produced less heat and consumed
less electricity. Programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced
during this time.

Characteristic Description

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making systems smaller

Core Technology and faster.

More compact than first-gen computers, using less physical

Size space.
 Characteristic Description

Speed Increased processing speed and efficiency.

Reliability More dependable with fewer system failures.

Cost Lower operational costs due to improved efficiency and size.

Introduced FORTRAN and COBOL, enabling easier

Languages programming.

Magnetic core memory and secondary storage (tapes,

Storage disks).

Input/Output Punch cards, keyboards, and line printers.

Applications Used in scientific, business, and early commercial sectors.

Energy The second generation of computers requires less amount of

Requirement energy

Advantages
Some advantages of second-generation, computers over 1st generations are:
1. Smaller Size: Second-generation computers were more compact compared to first-
generation systems, thanks to the use of transistors instead of bulky vacuum tubes.
2. Greater Reliability: Transistors were more durable and less prone to failure than
vacuum tubes, making these computers more dependable overall.
3. Energy-Efficient: These computers consume less power and generate less heat
compared to their predecessors, though they still require cooling systems.
4. Faster Processing Speed: Second-generation computers process data faster,
improving overall efficiency and reducing processing time.
5. Improved Accuracy: They offer higher accuracy in calculations, with fewer errors
compared to earlier systems.
6. Better Portability: The smaller size also makes them easier to transport and
integrate into different environments, improving flexibility.
Disadvantages
However, second-generation computers still have some major issues, some of which are:
1. Cooling System Still Needed: Even though they generate less heat, these systems
still require cooling mechanisms to prevent overheating.
2. Maintenance Requirements: Regular maintenance is necessary to keep the
machines running smoothly, as they can still encounter issues over time.
3. High Manufacturing Cost: Producing second-generation computers was
still expensive, which limited their widespread availability.
4. Limited Application: These computers were mostly used for specific purposes, such
as scientific calculations or business data processing, making them less versatile.
5. Punch Card Input: They relied on punch cards for input, a relatively slow and
cumbersome method compared to modern input devices.

Third Generation Computers

During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to
integrated circuits, also referred to as ICs. Here, a variety of transistors were placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors. The most important feature of this era’s computers
was speed and reliability. IC was made from silicon, also called silicon chips.
Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs).

Programming language High-level language.

Large magnetic core, magnetic

Memory
tape/disk.

Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard,

Input/output devices
printer, etc.

IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR

Examples of third-generation
395, B6500, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation Computers

In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on
one chip called microprocessors. The advantage of this technology is that one
microprocessor can contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and
control functions on one chip. LSI placed thousands of transistors onto a single chip
The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation provided
even smaller-sized computers with larger capacities. That's not enough, then Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the pc from the central processing unit and memory
to input/ output controls on one chip and allowed the dimensions to reduce drastically.
VLSI placed several hundred thousand transistors on a single silicon chip. This silicon
chip is known as the microprocessor.
Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and
virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and customary device. The concept of private
computers and computer networks came into being within the fourth generation.
Characteristics Components

Large-scale integration (VLSI) and

the microprocessor (VLSI has
Main electronic component
thousands of transistors on a single
microchip).

semiconductor memory (such

Memory
as RAM, ROM, etc.).

pointing devices, optical scanning,

Input/output devices
keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.

IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II,

Examples of the fourth generation
Apple Macintosh, Alter 8800, etc.

Fifth Generation Computers

The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to
behave like humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, the area of
medicine, and entertainment. Within the field of game playing also it has also shown
remarkable performance where computers are capable of beating human competitors.
Characteristics Components

Based on artificial intelligence, uses

the Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI) technology and parallel
processing method (ULSI has millions
Main electronic component
of transistors on a single microchip
and the Parallel processing method
use two or more microprocessors to
run tasks simultaneously).

Understand natural language (human

Language
language).
 Characteristics Components

Size Portable and small in size.

Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen,

pen, speech input (recognize
Input/output device
voice/speech), light scanner, printer,
keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.

Desktops, laptops, tablets,

An example of the fifth generation
smartphones, etc.

Internet

Definition:
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using
standardized protocols (like TCP/IP).

Key Points:

 Enables sharing of information and resources globally.

 Comprises millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks.
 Services include: World Wide Web (WWW), email, file sharing, online gaming, etc.

Examples:
Accessing websites, sending emails, streaming videos, online banking.

🧭 2. Browser (Web Browser)

Definition:
A web browser is a software application used to access and view information on the World
Wide Web.

Functions:

 Requests web pages from servers via HTTP/HTTPS.

 Displays content like text, images, videos, and interactive elements.
 Manages bookmarks, history, downloads, etc.

Popular Browsers:
  Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox
 Microsoft Edge
 Apple Safari
 Opera

🔍 3. Search Engine

Definition:
A search engine is a web-based tool that helps users find information on the internet by indexing
websites and allowing keyword-based queries.

How It Works:

1. Crawling – Scans the web for pages using bots.

2. Indexing – Organizes and stores information found.
3. Ranking – Sorts results based on relevance to the user’s query.

Examples:

 Google
 Bing
 Yahoo!

Application of Computers in Business

Computers play a vital role in modern business by increasing efficiency, accuracy, and
communication across various operations.

🛒 1. E-Commerce (Electronic Commerce)

Definition:
E-Commerce refers to buying and selling goods or services using the internet.

Applications:

 E-Ticketing: Booking tickets for airlines, buses, trains, movies, events online.
Example: IRCTC, BookMyShow, MakeMyTrip
 E-Billing: Generation and sharing of bills electronically.
Example: Electricity bills, phone bills, e-receipts.
 E-Payments: Online payment for goods, services, and bills using digital methods.
Example: UPI, credit/debit cards, net banking, PayPal.
Benefits:

 24/7 availability
 Global reach
 Cost-effective
 Quick and easy transactions

📊 2. Accounting and Finance

Use of Computers:

 Maintaining financial records (income, expenses, profits)

 Automating payroll systems
 Budgeting and forecasting
 Preparing financial statements (Balance Sheet, P&L)
 Tax calculations and filing

Software Tools:

 Tally
 QuickBooks
 Zoho Books
 MS Excel

Benefits:

 Accuracy and speed

 Easy data management and retrieval
 Reduces manual errors
 Real-time reporting

Introduction to MS Office Components

MS Office is a suite of productivity software developed by Microsoft. It includes:

Component Function

MS Word Word processing (documents, letters, reports)

MS Excel Spreadsheets (data analysis, calculations)

MS PowerPoint Presentations (slideshows)

MS Outlook Email and calendar management

 Component Function

MS Access Database management

📄 2. Introduction to MS Word

MS Word is a word processing application used to:

 Create professional documents

 Edit and format text
 Insert images, tables, charts, etc.
 Save, print, and share documents

Common Uses:

 Writing letters, resumes, essays

 Creating reports, notices, invitations

🔧 3. Word Basic Commands

Command Description

New Create a new document (File → New)

Open Open an existing document (File → Open)

Save / Save As Save current document (File → Save / Save As)

Cut, Copy, Paste Move or duplicate text (Ctrl + X, Ctrl + C, Ctrl + V)

Undo / Redo Revert or repeat an action (Ctrl + Z, Ctrl + Y)

Bold, Italic, Underline Format text (Ctrl + B, Ctrl + I, Ctrl + U)

Font & Size Change text appearance from the toolbar

Alignment Align text: Left, Center, Right, Justify

Bullets/Numbering Add lists using bullet points or numbers

Insert Add tables, images, shapes, headers/footers (Insert tab)

Print Print the document (File → Print or Ctrl + P)

Word Processing – Additional Features in MS Word
Formatting – Text and Documents

Text Formatting:

 Font Style & Size – Change font type, size, color.

 Bold, Italic, Underline – Emphasize text.
 Text Color & Highlighting – Improve readability.
 Alignment – Left, Center, Right, Justify.
 Line & Paragraph Spacing – Adjust space between lines or paragraphs.

Document Formatting:

 Page Setup – Set margins, orientation (portrait/landscape).

 Headers & Footers – Add document titles, page numbers.
 Themes & Styles – Apply a consistent design across the document.

Sorting and Tables

Sorting:

 Used to arrange text or data in ascending or descending order (A-Z or Z-A).

 Found under: Table Tools → Layout → Sort

Tables:

 Used to organize data in rows and columns.

 Can be inserted via: Insert → Table
 Formatting options: merge cells, add borders, shade cells, adjust column width.

Introduction to Mail-Merge

Mail Merge:

 A tool to send personalized letters or emails to multiple recipients.

 Combines a main document with a data source (like Excel).

Uses:

 Sending bulk letters, invitations, certificates.

Steps:

1. Create the main document.

2. Select recipients/data source.
 3. Insert merge fields (like name, address).
4. Preview and finish the merge.

Inserting Hyperlinks

Hyperlink:
A clickable link that redirects to:

 A web page
 An email address
 Another place in the same document
 A file on your computer

How to Insert:

 Select text → Insert → Hyperlink → Add URL or locati5. Lists (Bullets and
Numbering)

 Bulleted List – For unordered items

Example: • Apple • Banana • Mango
 Numbered List – For ordered items
Example: 1. Step one 2. Step two
 Found under: Home → Paragraph → Bullets/Numbering

Marquee (Note)

⚠️Marquee is not a standard MS Word feature.

It is an HTML tag used in web design to create scrolling text.

In MS Word Alternative:

 Use Text Boxes with animations in PowerPoint, or simulate scrolling with manual
movement (limited support).

Feature Function

Text Formatting Change font style, size, color, alignment

Document Formatting Setup page, headers, footers, margins

Sorting Arrange text/data in A-Z or Z-A order

Tables Organize information in rows/columns

 Feature Function

Mail-Merge Send personalized letters/emails to many people

Hyperlinks Add clickable links to web pages, files, or document locations

Lists Create bulleted or numbered lists

Marquee Not supported in MS Word; used in HTML for scrolling text

Mail Merge – Brief Explanation

Mail Merge is a feature in MS Word that allows you to create personalized documents (like
letters, emails, labels, or envelopes) for multiple recipients using a single template.

Purpose:

To automate the process of sending the same document with individual details (like names,
addresses) to many people.

Main Components:

1. Main Document – The base document (e.g., a letter or invitation).

2. Data Source – A file (usually Excel) containing personalized data like:
o Names
o Addresses
o Phone numbers
3. Merge Fields – Placeholders in the main document that are replaced by actual data from
the data source (e.g., <<Name>>, <<Address>>).

Steps to Perform Mail Merge:

1. Open MS Word
2. Create or open your main document.
3. Go to Mailings → Start Mail Merge → Letters (or other type).
4. Click Select Recipients → Use Existing List and choose your Excel/CSV file.
5. Insert fields like <<Name>>, <<Address>>, etc.
6. Click Preview Results to check the output.
7. Click Finish & Merge → Print Documents or Send Email Messages.

Uses of Mail Merge:

 Sending bulk invitations

  Printing certificates
 Generating payslips
 Sending personalized emails

Marquee –

Marquee is an HTML tag used in web design to create scrolling or moving text or images on
a webpage.

What It Does:

The <marquee> tag makes text or images move:

 Horizontally (left to right or right to left)

 Vertically (top to bottom or bottom to top)

Syntax Example:

<marquee>Welcome to our website!</marquee>

➡️This will scroll the text "Welcome to our website!" from right to left by default.

Attributes of <marquee>:

Attribute Description Example

direction Sets the scroll direction left, right, up, down

scrollamount Sets the speed of scrolling scrollamount="10"

behavior Sets scroll type scroll, slide, alternate

loop Sets how many times it scrolls loop="5"