M.E.

S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR

Notes 2 2025- 2026

Section : Boys / Girls Date : 25-04-2025

Class & Div.: XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson / Topic: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

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CHAPTER-02
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential means the capability to do work by a charge to overcome the forces of electrostatics in
order to move from infinity to a point in the field of another charge.
The electric potential in an electric field at a point is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric forces.
Mathematically,
W
V=
q0

Relation between electric field and potential

(To show that electric field is the negative of potential gradient)

Let the small distance between A and B be dx. Work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B is
dV = dW
q0

But dW = F.dx And F = q0E

So,
dW = q0E. dx
Then,
q0E.dx
dV =
q0

dV = E.dx ; dV = Edx cos 1800 ; dV = -Edx

dV
E=-
dx
So electric field is the negative of potential gradient.
The unit of electric field intensity is Vm−1 OR NC-1

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Potential Difference:
The potential difference between two points is the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to the other against the electrostatic forces.
The unit of potential difference is volt OR JC-1 . The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1
joule of work is done in moving 1 Coulomb of charge from one point to another against the electric force.

When a test charge q0 is moved from A to B, a work WAB has to be done against the electrostatic forces
of q. Hence Potential Difference between two points A and B is:

Electric Potential due to a Point Charge:

Consider a positive point charge +q placed at the origin O. The electric potential at P would be the amount
of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to P. Let a test charge q0 be placed at A at a
distance x from the source charge q located at O. By Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force on q0 is,

Then the small work done in moving q0 from A to B through a small distance dx against the electrostatic
force is,

So total work done in moving q0 from ∞ to P is,

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 1 q q0
W=
4πε0 r

Then the electric potential at point p is

V= W
q0
1 q
V=
4πε0 r
Variation of electric potential and electric field with distance r :

Variation of electric potential with the reciprocal of distance (1/r) :

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Electric Potential at any point due to a dipole:

Let BP = r1 and AP = r2
Net Potential at P due to the dipole is
V= V1 + V2
𝑞 1 1
V= [ − ] ………….(1)
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟1 𝑟2

From the Figure,

𝑟12 = (a-rcos𝜃)2 + r2 sin2 𝜃

= a2 – 2ar cos𝜃+ r2 cos2𝜃+ r2 sin2𝜃

𝑟12 = a2 – 2ar cos𝜃+ r2

If a<<r then neglect a

𝑟12 = r2 – 2ar cos𝜃

2ar cos𝜃
𝑟12 = r2 [1 − ]
𝑟2
2a cos𝜃
𝑟2 = r2 [1 − ]
1 𝑟

1
2a cos𝜃 2
r1 = r [1 − ]
𝑟

1
1 1 [1 − 2a cos𝜃 −2
= ]
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟

Apply binomial theorem in the above equation. Then,

a cos𝜃
1 = 1 [1 + ] ...................... (2)
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
Similarly

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 a cos𝜃
1 = 1 [1 − ] ................... (3)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
Sub eq (2) and eq (3) in eq (1)

𝑞 1 a cos𝜃 1 a cos𝜃
V= [ [1 + 𝑟
] − [1 −
𝑟 𝑟
]]
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟

a cos𝜃 a cos𝜃
V= 𝑞 [[1 + ] − [1 − ]]
4𝜋𝑟𝗌0 𝑟 𝑟

𝑞 a cos𝜃 a cos𝜃
V= [1 + −1+ ]
4𝜋𝑟𝗌0 𝑟 𝑟

q2a cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟2

But P = q 2a, so
p cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟2
If point P is on the axial line, then 𝜃 = 00, so cos0 = 1
p
V=
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟2
If point P is on the equitorial line, then 𝜃 = 900, so cos90 = 0
Then
V=0
Electric Potential due to a system of charges:

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EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
Any surface that has same potential at every point is called an Equipotential Surface.
Properties:
1) No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.

2. Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point.

3. Equipotential surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric fields.

This implies equipotential surfaces are farther apart in the region of weak fields and vice versa.
4) Two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect.
If two equipotential surfaces intersect then at the point of intersection, there would be two values of electric
potential which is not possible.
Equipotential Surfaces of some charge distributions:
I. Equipotential surfaces of a positive point charge.

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 II. Equipotential surfaces of a dipole and two equal positive charges:

III. Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field:

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

When two like charges lie at an infinite distance apart, no work is done and hence electric potential energy
is zero. But for same charges when kept very close to each other, work has to be done against the forces of
repulsion. This work is stored in the form of Potential Energy of two charges.
The electric potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the amount of work done in
assembling the charges at their locations by bringing them from infinity.

a) Potential energy of a system of two point charges:

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 b) Potential energy of a system of three point charges:

The work (W3) done to bring charge q3 from infinity to its position at point P3 when charges q1 and q2 are
already present in the region.

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Behaviour of Conductors in electrostatic fields:
1) Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a conductor.

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6) Electric field at any point on the surface of charged conductor, is proportional to the surface charge
density there.

Electrostatic Shielding:
Electrostatic shielding means protecting from electrostatic fields.
The phenomenon, of making a region free from the effects of electric fields is called Electrostatic Shielding.
It is based on the fact that electric field is zero inside a hollow conductor. A field free region of this type is
also called ‘Faraday cage.’

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The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity. There are no charges in the cavity.

Applications of electrostatic shielding:

I. In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safe to sit inside a car than standing under a
tree or on open ground because the metallic body of the car gives electrostatic shielding from
lightning.
II. Electrostatic Shielding can be achieved by placing sensitive instruments in a hollow conductor.
This helps to save them from the effects of stray electrical disturbances.
Dielectrics and polarization
Dielectrics
The non conducting materials in which equal and opposite induced charges are produced on their opposite
faces on applying an external electric field are called dielectrics.
Example: air, H2 gas, glass, mica etc.
There are two types of non conducting substances or two types of dielectrics, Polar and non- polar
dielectrics.
A. Polar dielectrics:
A molecule, in which the centre of positive charges does not coincide with the centre of negative charges,
when no external field is applied, is called a polar molecule.
Examples: HCl , H2 O, NH3 , CO2 , etc.
In the absence of an external field, the dipole moments of polar molecules orient themselves in random
directions. Hence no net dipole moment is observed in the dielectric. When an electric field is applied, the
dipoles orient themselves in the direction of electric field. Hence a net dipole moment is produced

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B. Non -Polar substances:
A molecule in which the centre of positive charges coincides with the centre of negative charges is called
a non- polar molecule. The ‘dipole moment’, associated with such a molecule, is zero.
Examples: N2 ,O2 ,H2 etc.
A non- polar molecule has zero electric dipole moment p⃗→of its own.
When an electric field is applied, a force (F⃗→= qE⃗→) is applied in the direction of field on the positive charges
of the molecule and a force (F⃗→= - qE⃗→) is applied in the direction opposite to the applied field (E⃗⃗⃗)⃗→ on the
negative charges of the molecule.
As a result, the positive charge gets pulled in the direction of the field and the negative charge in the
opposite direction and the molecule acquires a dipole moment Thus, a non – polar molecule becomes a
polar molecule and becomes an induced electric dipole.
This induced electric dipole moment disappears as and when the external electric field is removed.
Polarization of a Dielectric Slab:
It is a process of inducing equal and opposite charges on the opposite faces of the dielectric through the
application of an external electric field.

Consider two parallel conducting plates separated by a certain distance and having vacuum/air between
them.

After introducing a non-polar dielectric slab between the plates, each atom behaves as a polar molecule.
Therefore, the net effect is that the opposite faces of the dielectric will have equal and opposite charges
called induced charges. This process is called polarization of the dielectric.

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Dielectric Constant:
The ratio of the applied electric field intensity, to the reduced electric field intensity on placing a dielectric
between two oppositely charged plates, is called the dielectric constant (K) of the concerned dielectric.

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Capacitors are special (quite small sized) systems designed to store large amounts of charge. A capacitor
consists of two conducting bodies separated by a non-conducting medium. It was earlier called a condenser.
The following symbols are used to represent a capacitor of

Capacitance:
The measure of the ability of a capacitor to store charges is called capacitance or capacity of that capacitor.
Let q be the charge on a capacitor and V be its potential. It is then observed that
VαQ ; QαV
Q=CV
where C, the constant of proportionality, is called capacitance or capacity of the capacitor. Thus,
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 C=Q
V

The S.I. unit of capacitance is farad (F).

1 farad (F) = 1CV-1
Purpose of capacitor:
It is used in electrical appliances such as radio sets, television sets, computers etc.
The capacitor is almost an essential component of a very large number of electronic and electric circuits.
Parallel Plate Capacitor:
It consists of two plane parallel conducting plates separated by a small distance.
These plates are given equal and opposite charges.
Principle of parallel plate Capacitor:
Capacitance of a charged conductor gets increased by bringing another similar grounded uncharged
conductor near to it.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:

Electric field between the plates of the capacitor is,

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Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance ’C’, plate area ‘A’, and separation between the plates ‘d’. The
capacitance of the capacitor is given by,

Now a dielectric slab of thickness‘t’ is introduced in between the plates of the capacitor.

Then net electric field inside the slab is,

⃗𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗→ = 𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗0→ - 𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝⃗⃗→

The total potential difference between the plates, is the work done in crossing unit positive charge from
one plate to another in the field E0 over a distance (d−t) and in the field E over a distance t, then

𝜎
But, E0 = and E = 𝐸⃗⃗⃗0
𝗌0 𝐾
𝐸⃗⃗⃗0
So, V = E0(d-t) + t
𝐾
𝑡
V = E0[(d-t)+ ]
𝐾
𝜎
But, E0 =
𝗌0
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 Then V = 𝜎 [(d-t)+ 𝑡 ]
𝗌0 𝐾

Capacitance C=𝑄
𝑉
𝑄
C= 𝜎 𝑡
𝗌0
[(d−t)+ 𝐾]

𝑄
but 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝑄
C= 𝘘 𝑡
𝐴𝗌0
[(d−t)+ 𝐾]

𝐴𝗌0
C= 𝑡
[(d−t)+ 𝐾]

Grouping or Combination of Capacitors:

Capacitors can be grouped in two ways:
(i) Series (ii) Parallel

Capacitors in Series:

In the following diagram, capacitors C1, C2, C3 are connected in series.

Let V be the potential difference between A and B.
In series combination, the charge (q) is the same on the plates of all the capacitors.
Also, total potential is the sum of individual potentials across each capacitor, i.e. V1, V2, V3, across C1,
C2, C3 respectively.

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Capacitors in parallel:
In the following diagram, capacitors C1 , C2 , C3 are shown to be connected in parallel.
Let V be the potential difference between A and B.
In the parallel combination, the potential is the same across all the capacitors.
Total charge in the circuit is the sum of individual charges across all the capacitors.

Q = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
If C is the equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination, we would also have
Q = CV.
Hence CV = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
The equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination is given by
C = (C1 + C2 + C3)
For n capacitors: C = (C1 + C2 + ................. Cn)

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Polarization vector:
It measures the degree of polarization of the dielectric and is defined as the (induced) dipole moment per
unit volume of the polarised dielectric.
When the dielectric is homogeneous, each atom or molecule has the same dipole moment p⃗→ . If n is the
number of atoms or molecules per unit volume of the dielectric, the polarisation vector (P⃗→) is :

Susceptibility and Dielectric Constant:

In most of the dielectrics, the polarization vector P⃗→is proportional to the electric field acting on it.

Energy stored in a capacitor

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor. Work has to be done to store the charges in a capacitor. This work done
is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the capacitor.

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Let q be the charge and V be the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor. If dq is the
additional charge given to the plate, then work done is,
dw = Vdq

Energy density of electric field in a capacitor:

When a capacitor is charged, the work done in charging the plates of the capacitor is stored in form of
energy. The energy stored per unit volume is termed as the energy density’σ′ of the electric field.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plate area A and capacitance C. The separation between the
plates is ‘d’.

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Common Potential
When two differently charged capacitors are connected in parallel, the charges gets transferred between
the capacitors and reaches a constant potential difference between the plates. This is known as common
potential (V)

Initial charge on the first capacitor is, Q1 =C1V1

Initial charge on the second capacitor is, Q2 =C2V2

Total charge before sharing = C1V1 + C2V2 .........................(1)

Total charge after sharing = (C1+ C2)V................................ (2)

According to law of conservation of charge,

C1V1 + C2V2 = (C1+ C2)V

𝐶1𝑉1+𝐶2𝑉2
V=
𝐶1+ 𝐶2

This is called common potential.

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Loss of energy in redistribution of the charges in capacitors:

After joining conductors final potential energy of the system is,

The difference in the energy is positive value. This suggests that there is loss of energy in redistribution of
the charges. The energy is lost in the form of heat energy.

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