CHAPTER 1

ELEMENTS OF PACKAGE DESIGN

Note: Please refer ppt for figures
Packaging technology is constantly present in our everyday lives. From potato chips to furniture to toothpaste,
almost all the goods we can buy are packaged. Manufacturers do not simply use it to transport their goods.
Packaging can also involve a marketing aspect that should not be underestimated. Through single or multiple
layers of packaging material, packaging technology makes products transportable. It is individually tailored
to individual goods and modes of transport. Packaging technology always works according to the principle
“as much packaging as necessary and as little as possible”. “Packaging must not only protect the product
inside and make them fit for transport, but must also fulfill additional functions: They must be intelligently
constructed, functionally designed, and adequately printed. Also, it should contain information about the
product, make products sortable, and be environmentally friendly.” Packaging technology is omnipresent. It
is used for the protection, portioning, storage, transport, and marketing of goods. Packaging technology is
especially important for logistics in that it represents the final step in intra-logistics and is at the threshold of
extra logistics.

PACKAGING MATERIALS
At the beginning of the packaging process, the packaging technician is faced with the question “Which
packaging material is best suited for my products?” The term packaging material refers to the raw material
or material the corresponding packaging consists of. One can choose from many different materials. Here are
the most important ones:

• Plastic is probably the most frequently used packaging material in the world. In the form of foils, crates,
bottles, and other containers, it is used to transport and market goods. Since conventional polyethylene-based
plastics are very harmful to the environment, bioplastics are increasingly being used.
To produce bioplastics, renewable raw materials are broken down into individual molecules, which are then
lined up again in a new sequence. The result is a substance that has almost the same properties as plastics
based on crude oil.

• Paper or cardboard is also one of the most frequently used packaging materials. It is used to transport small
and medium-sized goods in the form of cartons and boxes. Specially processed corrugated board is particularly
stable and can also be used to stabilize other packaging materials.

• Metals are used in the form of cans and aluminum foil. Metal is comparatively robust and can be recycled and
reused after being used and cleaned.

• Wood serves as a raw material for transport boxes and cartons. High-priced spirits and wines are examples of
applications where wood is used specifically to emphasize the value of the goods.

• Glass has been used in packaging technology for centuries. Bottles, jam jars, or medicine bottles - it is hard
to imagine everyday life without glasses.

• Composite materials are often used for the production of multifunctional packaging. Juice cartons, for
instance, consist of a combination of paper and plastic. The paper reduces production costs while the plastic
ensures that the packaging remains leak-proof.
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• Packaging ancillaries supplement packaging aids and increase the transportability and stability of packaging.
Frequently used packaging ancillaries are adhesive tapes, strapping tapes, pallets, stretch film, cords, labels,
wires, belts, seals, sealing clips, and dispensers. The transition from packaging materials to load securing
materials is often fluent. No clear delimitation is possible in these cases.

FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING
Packaging fulfills various functions. These are the six most important ones:

1. Protection and locking function: Stable packaging materials protects goods from damage caused by impact,
scratching, moisture, dirt, and other influences. Heat-insulating materials maintain the edibility of food and
locked transport boxes protect against theft.

2. Storage function: Packaging can significantly improve the shelf life of goods. The packaging can also
increase the degree of surface utilization to almost 100 % as packages can be stacked better than the product
alone.

3. Marketing function: Bright colors, conveniently positioned logos, and unusual designs are intended to
attract the attention of potential buyers and encourage them to buy a product.

4. Means of identification: Warning symbols mark goods as hazardous, fragile, or perishable and inform the
deliverer on how to handle the product. Undamaged seals are a sign that the goods have not been opened since
shipment and have arrived complete.

5. Manipulation warning: Bags, cartons, transport boxes, and pallets group individual goods together and
make it easier to handle and deliver the goods.

6. Usability: On the one hand, packaging can be reused if necessary (example: resealable biscuit pack), on the
other hand, packaging material can be recycled and reused.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE PACKAGE DESIGN.

3 factors:
1. What is the product?
What are you selling? How big is it? What materials is it made of? Is it delicate? This question is going to
help you determine if there are any logistical musts for your product packaging. For example, a delicate
product will require more secure packaging. Something large or with odd dimensions, on the other hand, may
require a custom packaging solution instead of an out-of-the-box box.

2. Who’s buying the product?

Is the product supposed to be used by men, women, or both? Is it for children or adults? Is it geared towards
environmentally conscious people? To those on a budget or with lots of disposable income? A product’s
packaging should appeal to its ideal consumer; it’s important to know who that consumer is before you start
the design process. Products for older adults may need larger text. Alternatively, items geared towards an
affluent customer will need to consider materials that create a feeling of luxury.

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3. How are people buying the product?

Are they purchasing it in a supermarket? A small boutique? Online? You’re going to want to think about
packaging differently if the product is going to be sold online and shipped than if it’s going to need to stand
out from the competition on a big-box store shelf. Items that will be sold online probably shouldn’t have a lot
of extra space that could cause the product to rattle around, or the package to bend. And those that will be on
a boutique shelf will need to catch the eye of a buyer surrounded by cutesy items in cutesy packages.

Relationship of packaging with other disciplines

The packaging industry

TYPES OF PACKAGING

Consumer packaging Industrial packaging

Designed for consumer’s convenience and appeal, Designed to focus on the handling convenience and
marketing consideration and, display. protection during transportation
The main emphasis is on marketing The main focus is on logistic
Based on the level of packaging done, the packaging can be classified as primary, secondary and tertiary.
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 • Primary – direct contact with product and maintain product quality.
• Secondary – contains product and primary pack presentation, protection
• Tertiary – transport/ shipping, warehouse storage, bulk handling.
Based on the rigidity of the packaging material, we can classify them into three.
1. Rigid package/ materials: Includes mainly glass (bottle/container), metal (cans) and wood (box)
2. Semi-rigid package/ materials: Includes mainly plastic (bottle) and paper board (cartons, corrugated boards,
cans)
3. Flexible package/ materials: Includes paper, plastic film and aluminium foil.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PACKAGING DESIGN

1. Environmental factors: Packaging protects the goods we buy from wastage and damage. Without
packaging, materials handling would be messy, inefficient and costly, and modern consumer marketing would
be difficult. Once the product is consumed, the package had fulfilled its function, and it would turn to be a
“waste.” At this juncture it is noticed as an environmental challenge. However it has its own impact on
environment as a whole.

Packaging is a significant contributor to the waste problem. It comprises about 10 per cent of the urban solid
waste stream. Garden waste, industrial waste, builders' rubble and food waste are significantly larger
components of the solid waste stream. Packaging is also a highly visible part of the litter stream and because
of that, packaging is often considered to have only a negative environmental impact. Approximately 70 per
cent of primary packaging is used for food and drink which is often discarded in a dirty state and contaminated
by residues of the original content. In recent years, there has been a rush of legislative activity, resulting in
patch work of measures across the world, which in some cases, tended to be discriminatory in their effect.
Commercial recycling schemes were in operation long before the environment ever became a popular issue.
The industry invests heavily in educational and general community environmental programmes.
The increased use of packaging provides a physical barrier between a product and the external environment
thereby ensuring hygienic conditions and reducing the risk of product wastage due to contamination. This is
particularly important in the case of food and beverage products. In the lifecycle of food products, the highest
energy input takes place during the production process. Appropriate packaging ensures that this energy is not
wasted. Some packaging is also needed for safe and efficient transportation. Packaging is also used to provide
customers with product information and usage instructions, some of which are required by law.
Yet packaging is not a major contributor to India’s environmental problems. Indeed the Indian packaging
industry has strong credentials as a net waste reducer. while designing a packaging due care should be taken
to avoid the pollution of environment, by recyclable materials, eco-friendly materials.

The factors having environmental impact on packaging from highest to lowest rank are;
1. Littering/ scattering
2. Pollution (Air, Water and Sea)
3. Soil Erosion
4. Ozone Depletion
5. Global Warming and Climate Changes
6. Survival of Endangered Species
7. Depletion of Non-Renewable Resources
8. Toxicity of Wastes
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9. Impact of Landfill
10. Energy Cost

Measures to minimize the environmental effects of packaging are;

1. Regulation for Toxic Elements in Packaging
2. Light Weight Packaging
3. Design Reuse Packaging
4. Disposal of Package Wastes Made Easy
5. Recycling With Less Energy
6. Recovery Through Composting or Energy FrommWastes
7. Educating Consumers
8. Prescribing Standards for Packaging Materials And Packages

2. Social, Economic and Technical Factors on Packaging: Packaging is part and parcel of any social life
and every activity of human life, in one way or other is associated with packaging.
Social factors of packaging are consumer awareness, shopping habit changes, lifestyle changes, environmental
awareness, higher education, aging population, small household, time pressure and health awareness.
Economic factors of packaging are Greater Disposable Income, Competition, Globalization, Urbanization,
Infrastructural Development and, High Standard of Living.
Technical factors of packaging are Technology development, material development, product development,
packaging development, energy saving techniques, innovation and research in packaging design , recyclability
and recoverability.

3. Distribution factors:
 Destination – distance and time to be traveled
 Handling – manual / mechanical
 Transport – road/rail/air
 Warehousing/Storage- Stacking pattern/Stack height
 Atmospheric conditions- Temperature/RH/pressure.
 Hazards – Drop
- Horizontal impact (intensity)
- Compression (stack load with time)
- Vibration (frequency / amplitude)
❑ Limitations – Carrying capacity of human being for manual handling, capacity of lifting
equipment/conveyor etc.
❑ Markings- General/special (for dangerous goods)

4. Marketing factors:
 Merchandising system – Over the counter or super market.
 The customer – gender/age/income group/social level
 Buying habit (Quality)
 Location of market- Local ,regional,national,export
 Consumer’s convenience:
▪ Inspection before purchase
▪ Easy opening

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 ▪ Reclose ability
▪ Measured dose
▪ Dispensing aid
▪ Easy grip
5. Legal factors:
 Obligatory requirements (for safety and consumer protection)
 Standards of weight and measures act (to prevent deception)
 Weight and quantity to be packed
 Marking of retail price
 Regulations of the carriers.
 International Air transport Association (IATA)
 Legislation of importing countries (Controlling entry of certain packaging materials)

6. Cost factor
 Material and container
 Type of operation
 Maintenance and depreciation of machinery /equipment
 Storage .
 Transportation of filled package
 Loss and damage cost
 Replacement and repairing defective items
 Loss of goodwill cost (damage beyond certain limit)
 Insurance cost
 Obsolescence cost
 Packaging development cost

7. Product factor:
a) Kind of product
 Consumer / Industrial.
 High Value / Low value.
 Standard / Gift / Seasonal.
b) Characteristics of product
 Physical state (Solid/Liquid/Powder)
 Single item/Composite or assembly
 Weight / Density
 Volume / Size
 Surface finish (Smooth/Rough)
 Shape / form
 Stability and C.G. - The center of gravity is the average location of the weight of an object.
 Fragility
 Rigidity
 Flammability / volatility etc
8. Packaging operation factors
 Time factor
 Convenience factor
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  Versatility factor
 Growth factor
 Consideration for seasonal products

THE PACKAGING DESIGN PROCESS

1. Understand packaging layers: There are 3 layers of product packaging: outer packaging, inner
packaging and product packaging. The product may need one or all 3 of these. Outer packaging is the
1st thing a customer is going to see. This could include the box that the product is shipped in or the
shopping bag the item is placed in at the store. Inner packaging is what keeps the product nestled
safely in the outer packaging. This might be packing peanuts or tissue paper that stops something from
getting jostled or scuffed. Or it might be a sealed bag that acts to preserve freshness. Product packaging
is the packaging material which is in direct contact with the product. It is the box the toy comes in ,
the bottle with a label, the tag on a garment, the wrapper of candy bar, etc.
2. Choose the right type of packaging: There are many different types of packaging available for the
product such as square box design, nonsquare box design, bag design, bottle design, tube design, label
design, packet design, cup design, collapsible tube design, etc. Things you need to think when selecting
the right type of packaging are; the product form, the competition and, the budget.
3. Printer: Printing is something you should think about way before you get to design. Printer will be
able to give you specific information that can help the designer in preparing files. If you are going with
a standard-sized box or label, printers should be able to provide die-line templates that can be shared
with a designer. File-format requirements must be known by the designer. Designer should supply
print-ready file and visual mock-ups in a PNG or JPG format which everyone can open. Colors can
be selected as required, pantone or secondary. The type of printer- offset or digital should be selected
depending on the number of copies and cost.
4. Create your information architecture: You may have beautiful photos of the product in action, a
brilliant testimonial from a customer, a witty tagline that explains how the product is awesome, and a
great graphic showing customers how to use the product. Pick the one most important thing you want
your customers to know about your product. That should be the centre-piece of your design.
5. Evaluate a packaging design: Is it clear what your product is? Is the packaging an honest
representation of your product? What wll this package look like in 3D? What will this package look
like in stores? Is this design versatile? Is your packaging reusable?
6. Collect feedback: Make sure to run the packaging design by key stakeholders and people who have
never heard of or used your product.

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 7. Get the right files from your designer: you need packaging die-lines in vector format and color
codes. The file format will probably be an adobe illustrator (.ai), .pdf, or eps file. You will need one
for each variation of your packaging you are creating. (so, if you have 3 flavours, you need 3 die-lines.)
If your printer does custom colors, make sure you have the Pantone or CMYK color codes so that
everything turns out looking like you want.
NEWS TRENDS IN PACKAGING/ PACKAGE DESIGN

1. Digital printing revolution:

2020 is the beginning of a new decade that will be dominated by the digital world. Digital printing utilizes
computer generation as the principal mechanism behind designing physical product packaging and creating
the images or graphics governing their appearance. It’s fair to say digital printing influences every part of
today’s packaging and shows no signs of stopping.
Digital printing allows packagers far more latitude in personalization and customizing options than mechanical
processes like typesetting did. Most packaging companies switched from analog to digital within the past
decade. However, it takes time to retool a factory completely. In 2020, there are only a handful of companies
not getting on the digital train and making that progressive investment. In 2018, narrow-web digital presses
exceeded the standard flexo presses for the first time. This digital printing technology allows all colors to be
printed in a single pass, which has fostered a trend of “printing on-demand” in the industry.

2. Personalized packaging:

Digital printing makes it far easier to customize packaging and add personalization to products. This trend has
been building for a few years, and it has a major industry impact in 2020. Many of the top product brands
have explored personalized packaging and found a significant return on this innovative marketing
investment. One report cites that 70% of marketers believe personalization has a strong or extremely strong
impact on their customers.
There’s no one-size-fits-all in personalized packaging. In fact, that’s the core philosophy behind this trend.
Personalization allows a company to promote their name and brand in a forceful way that stands out from
competitors. Here are three successful examples of the personalized packaging trend.
• Coca-cola printing people’s names on their soft drink containers
• Frito-lay printing faces on their potato chip packages
• Bud light printing football teams on their beer cans

3. Transparency and clean labels:

Presenting product information in a clear and transparent way is another strong packaging industry trend for
2020. This trend is all about trust and honesty. In today’s world, where consumers have so much access to
information, they can better educate themselves about product choices. At the top of smart consumers’ interest
list are what their product choices contain and the packaging methods they use.
“transparency” refers to manufacturers being completely open and honest about what the products contain.
“clean” means products are safe and don’t contain harmful ingredients. When a manufacturer packages their
product in a way that makes content information clear, concise and open, it promotes trust in the company’s
brand name.

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Clean and transparent labeling strongly affects the packaging industry’s food sector. More and more u.s.
consumers are scanning food packages with their smartphones to find out exactly what they contain. Brands
answered the clean and transparent trend in 2020 with the implementation of smart label™. The label code
immediately connects consumers to a landing page with transparent information about how clean this choice
may be. This desire for transparency will likely remain strong in 2020 as consumers may be more likely to
purchase a newly launched food product that has clear product information.

4. Private labels and store brands dominating:

Individual store brands and private labels are an interesting trend for the packaging industry. This move finds
many stores offering product lines with a specific brand name unique to that store. It creates in-house brand
awareness and local customer loyalty, as opposed to generic brands offered by every competitor. This trend
also helps stores compete in the retail landscape, where consumers have a plethora of ways to buy the same
products.

Private store brands and their recognizably unique labels have exceeded national brands in consumer
popularity. Many consumers prefer purchasing private brands. Millennials lead the private brand loyalty
group, followed by lower-income earners.
The store brand and private labeling trend started a few years ago, with some of the biggest american
companies leading the trend. Amazon’s purchase of whole foods hinged on in-store branding and private
labeling. As lidl’s enters the u.s. market, consumers can expect to see their personal brand on the packaging.
Trader joe’s and aldi are two more examples of the current trend toward store brand labels on
packages. Today, one out of every four products sold in the U.S. comes from a private label or store brand. As
consumers continue to switch to private labels and store brands, this trend will dominate the retail space.

5. Playful colors, designs and gradients:

The move toward bold designs and effects on packaging has been expanding for some time. In 2020, this trend
remains strong. Many companies recognize how well strong colors, designs and dramatic effects stand out.
They also see how well this trend results in increased sales volume.
There is no doubt about how well humans respond to packaging with unique designs and colors. Information
from the pantone color institute states people experience 80% of their awareness from sight. Strong colors
like neon green and bright yellow quickly attract a person’s attention. So do effects like shining metallic sheens
and reflective surfaces.
Leading marketers design packaging to grab hold of a consumer’s notice and retain the memory. Studies have
shown that people make subconscious decisions about buying products within the first minute and a half after
observing it. Color often plays a big role in this decision.
2020 will likely see the continued dominance of bold packaging colors along with the rise of playful graphics
on packaging. Unique typography and quirky design convey a lightheartedness that may suit brands targeting
a youthful audience. One trend within unique package graphics is the popularization of color gradients. From
logo design to packaging, brands are adopting gradients for their visual interest that is both subtle and striking.
Gradients provide complexity without adding busyness, which makes them extremely dynamic.

6. Growth in flexible packaging:

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Flexible packaging is a trend that continues to gain great popularity, and there’s a good reason for it.
Technological advancement in flexible packaging materials makes them suitable to far more consumer
products today that were once restricted to rigid and hard materials.
Flexible packaging has many advantages over rigid packages due to the following factors:
• It is easier to store.
• It has an extended shelf life.
• It is more convenient to open.
• It is highly practical to close or reseal.
• It has a more attractive shelf appeal.
• It uses less material.
• It has improved cost economics.
• It weighs less.
• It has better shipping characteristics.
• It is better suited for e-commerce.
Part of the reason flexible packaging is such a prominent trend is material advancement. For years, most
flexible packaging materials were polyvinyl chloride. This plastic wouldn’t break down or decompose, which
made it environmentally hostile. Today, most flexible packaging uses materials made of polyethylene,
polyethylene terephthalate or polypropylene. These high-tech plastics are durable when in use but deteriorate
when discarded.

7. Recycled packaging products in use:

The recycled packaging trend has never been so popular. The movement started a generation ago with the 3-r
principle: reduce, reuse and recycle. Today, the 3-r model creates a circular economy where it’s a mainstay
for how proper product packaging performs. Recycling has now become firmly embedded in the american
psyche.
Recycled packaging is part of the worldwide sustainability movement. For years, the vast majority of
packaging waste found its way to landfills. Worse yet is the mass of non-perishable plastics currently floating
in the oceans. That pollution cannot be ignored, and many consumers want to do what they can to prevent it.
They’re choosing recyclable product packaging instead.

8. Vintage packaging:

Vintage packaging pays homage to the phrase, “what’s old is new again.” Whether young or old, nostalgia
has a significant effect on people. Many companies are channeling the vintage packaging trend in 2020 to
promote products that reflect the values of years ago.
Throwback designs present a piece of the past to consumers. Vintage packaging provides an essential part of
american culture and memories. These classic colors, shapes and themes reflect an earlier era of simplicity
and placidness. It’s a direction many modern people wish they could turn to, and packaging helps them achieve
that experience.
There are three reasons the vintage packaging trend is popular. First, these old designs reflect a timeless
quality that remained intact through the years. Second, vintage designs invoke memories of traditions and
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passion. Humans are partial to stories, and people listen to vintage packaging. Finally, vintage packaging
allows adults to share pieces of their past with the younger generation. These products help communicate
meaningful nostalgia and memories while also driving sales.

9. Minimalist product packaging:

“less is more” is an adage that’s true for many types of packaging. It’s certainly true in 2020 packaging
industry trends. Minimalist product packaging is popular for conscientious consumers
who prefer products that don’t have extraneous wrapping and protection. This trend is especially strong in the
modern food packaging industry.
Minimalist packaging works well because it’s simple. Consumers appreciate simplicity and economy, which
is one reason brown paper wrappings are so popular. It’s a pushback to unnecessary excessiveness.
The minimalist trend also affects product labels. People resist information overload. Labels with fine print and
too much detail are a turnoff. Packages with simple labels that tell consumers what the product is and what’s
in it for them are today’s trendy move. Companies that ignore the minimalist message do so at their marketing
peril.

10. Label printing over stick-on shipping labels:

Stick-on shipping labels were once the norm in product packaging. Shipping labels were the last things to go
on a packaged product before it went out the door. Back in the old days, this made sense, because most
packages were complete before the shipper knew their destination.
Stick-on labels aren’t the 2020 trend for shipping labels. Now, many sellers package their products on demand,
after they already know their recipient. It’s especially true in e-commerce and online shopping, where buyers
place orders before companies fill them.
Digital printing has virtually replaced stick-on shipping labels in many businesses. Label printing directly on
packaging removes one step in the distribution process. Each step costs money. Digital label printing lowers
packaging and shipping charges, and sellers can then pass on those savings to the consumer.

11. Ever-present e-commerce and packaging:

In the new decade, e-commerce will only grow as consumers increase online buying. Smithers pira estimates
the current e-commerce market — which is valued at $35 billion — will grow to $55 billion by
2022. Accordingly, specialized packaging specifically for e-commerce is trending. Amazon is the giant of e-
commerce, and there are some valid lessons to learn from amazon’s e-commerce packaging.
Amazon is a pack-to-order company. Once they receive an order, workers pick and process the items. Amazon
has automated every step of their process, including the physical packaging and digital printing. That includes
some individual items and a multiple order in one shipping box.
Amazon might be big, but it’s not the only e-commerce player. Many companies find the trend to e-commerce
purchasing effective and profitable. E-commerce packaging still reflects the same basic principles as real-time
shopping. Products have to be professionally presented, protected and please consumer expectations. This will
be increasingly important as social media grows. Smithers pira reports 49% of consumers share their unboxing
experience on social media, giving product packaging center stage.

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12. Sustainable packaging:

The green movement has the momentum to carry itself through 2020 and beyond. Every company that deals
with packaged goods should consider joining the green wave. It’s all about responsibility through sustainable
goods and environmentally friendly products. The green scene also involves smaller packaging.
Many brands are converting to sustainable packaging made from biodegradable materials like paper or hemp.
Others are focusing on reducing the amount of packaging each product has. This cuts down on the product’s
weight and shipping cost, and it sends a positive message to consumers.
Reduce, reuse and recycle is part of the green commitment to being responsible in the world. Today’s
consumers are conscious and deliberate about their environmental footprint. More people than ever are joining
the ecological fight and doing their part to protect their share of the world. The packaging industry must
recognize and respect consumers’ desire to maintain a smaller carbon footprint. They can do that by making
smaller and greener packages.

COMPUTER AIDED PACKAGE DESIGN

CAD stands for Computer Aided Design and is a design process which involves software that aids this process.
It is used all the time when designing packaging. It enables the industry to be more creative and packaging to
be more easily imagined and tweaked. The evolution of CAD systems has revolutionised many design and
engineering industries and is now used widely. Usually when people refer to CAD they are referring to the
software used. A common misconception is that the software is simply drawing software, or a graphic user
interface but this is not the case. It refers to software that helps any part of the process and for a multitude of
industries. CAD design software can be used to create 2D or 3D models with precise measurements, angles,
and dimensions. The use of CAD software requires a combination of tools and mathematical equations as well
as drawing skills in order to get the design precise. Industries that use CAD on a daily basis include architecture
firms, engineers, and product designers.
The use of CAD in production is critical and of importance due to many great benefits it offers. The vital
reason is for reducing the overall cost of product development, in addition for shortening the design cycle.
CAD systems allow designers to model parts on-screen, save in the systems databases for future uses and
improvement as making changes, editing and others, and print blueprints after automated drafting.

CAD in packaging
There are various CAD systems related to product packaging which are not specific to food. Some examples
of CAD systems for packaging available in the market are TOPS®Pro, ESKO, EFI, Quick Pallet Maker,
KASEMAKE Design Software, and Studio Designer. ArtiosCAD is the world’s most popular CAD software
for packaging and displays design. ArtiosCAD is the ideal CAD editor for all corrugated, folding carton and
POP designers.

What are the benefits of CAD in packaging design?

Accuracy: All of your packaging designs can be extremely accurate with the use of these systems which
enables better and faster products. The system creates much less room for errors than manual design. Your
packaging needs to be completely accurate in order to keep your products safe and Computer Aided
Manufacturing software helps with this.
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Visualisation: With CAD systems, it is possible to visualise the end product much more easily. You don’t
need to create hundreds of sketches from every angle and can easily make adaptations in order to visualise
different versions of the product you are creating. When we design our packaging it is important for us that
our clients can visualise and understand what the end product will look like in the real world.
Ease: CAD systems are also quite ‘easy’ to use (after training!). Whilst they do require a lot of training and
learning, it does eventually make the whole design process much easier. This is because designs can easily be
changed and adapted, and actually created much faster in the first place.
Speed: The speed as which you can create designs on CAD means that the system helps to keep costs on track
and helps products get to market faster which ultimately saves times, and therefore money, keeping budgets
healthy and low.
Re-usable: Another beautiful element of CAD systems is that it means your designs are reusable. There is no
need to start completely from scratch every time if, for example, you are working on a packaging project with
similar products. This is a great time saver and makes the design process much more straight forward. CAD
systems can make packaging designers, architects, and engineers lives much more straight forward, easier,
and faster. The systems also enable collaboration with other people due to the rise in cloud-based CAD
systems.
Limitations of CAD
CAD cannot make somebody a good designer, they simply help good designers do their work more quickly,
accurately, and efficiently. In the packaging industry, you need to have solid training and knowledge about
materials and other elements of packaging in order to create effective designs, not just the knowledge of CAD.

TOPS：TOTAL OPTIMIZATION PACKAGING SOFTWARE.

Tops pro allows the packaging professional to size and shape package designs from concept to carton, to
intermediate pack, to pallet stacking, to box strength analysis and to truck loading (figure 1).

Tops pro can help you

• Reduce packaging and transportation costs by 5-20%.
• Ship more products per truck or container.
• Improve productivity by decreasing the time required for case sizing.
• Calculate compression/stacking strength to determine the best board grade, cut corrugated cost, yet
minimize damage during transit.
• Have graphic reports which show how to package and load products.
• Create mixed pallets for display using tops mixpro and mixtray modules.
• Increase bottom-line profits by reducing the unsaleables due to case failure or transportation damage.

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PACKAGING CYCLE
The life of packaging is outlined in the picture to illustrate what a life cycle assessment (LCA) seeks to evaluate
about packaging. In brief, packaging raw materials, such as plastic granulate, are produced from non-
renewable, renewable, or recycled resources. These materials are subsequently converted to bottles, boxes,
and other packages that are filled by a food or beverage processor. The packaged product is then distributed
to retailers, who reuse the shipment packaging (i.e. secondary and tertiary packaging such as pallets or
corrugate boxes) or send it out for recovery or disposal. In the case of reusable packaging, a cleaning step may
be necessary to prepare the package for its subsequent use; otherwise, the use stage is typically not associated
with packaging.
Consumers purchase the food or beverage contained within the primary packaging; at home, they prepare and
consume the food or beverage and dispose this packaging.

Depending on the objectives of a particular analysis, LCAs of packaging can be conducted on the packaging
itself, for example, to evaluate alternative packaging designs for a particular product—or include packaging
as a part of a larger product system to understand the impacts of a product overall. Whether the packaging is
for food, beverages, personal care products, or building materials, the challenges are often the same: how to
minimize its environmental impact without compromising the product it is meant to support.
Evaluating this balance should be informed by sound scientific thinking. LCA provides a framework to guide
the development of environmentally preferable packaging in this industry and ensure that companies consider
not just the impacts of raw materials or manufacturing, but the entire packaging life cycle and how packaging
can influence product losses.

Applying life cycle-based practices can ensure that environmental burdens are not simply transferred from
one stage or component of the life cycle to another and offers a method for considering the role packaging
plays in protecting and marketing the product.

Optimize efficiency and effectiveness of packaging, keeping the product at the forefront. The nature of the
packaging supply chain is such that there may be a separation between the raw material provider, packaging
converter, and food or beverage processor, which can lead to missed opportunities in the optimization of the
collective package and product system. Designers aiming to develop packaging with reduced environmental
burdens in this value chain, however, must
resist the temptation to optimize only for
materials, distribution, or end-of-life and
instead address the full cradle-to-grave package
and product life cycle as a way to differentiate
the more environmentally sound alternative.
Regardless of the material choices in packaging
design, the product packaging with the highest
environmental burden is one that is either under
packaged, enabling breakage or theft, or over
packaged, requiring more material, and
therefore burden, than is necessary.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRODUCT AND PACKAGE DESIGN
The contents of a package and the design have an undeniable relationship with the perception of the quality
of the product and mutually complement and influence one above the other.
Containers and labels of products, as well as its content, communicate much more. They provide messages
that predispose us and condition to the purchase much before, and more permanently in memory, the same
product containing. Any other means of promotion is as close to the consumer as they are the packaging and
wrapping of a product. In the hands of the consumer, they communicate the message of the brand long until
the purchase is carried out.
First of all, a container is much more than a container with three dimensions (height, width and depth). It is a
vehicle to communicate emotions that connect consumers with our brand. The satisfaction or disappointment,
that provides the product is permanently associated with the brand.
We will review the possible combinations between an attractive packaging design or unattractive, and a good
or evil product to determine the relationship between product and package design.
Case 1. Attractive Package Design + Good Product
This is, without doubt, the best possible scenario. A package that conveys the qualities of its content and a
product that It meets the expectations of the consumer view and take the package in his hands. The consumer
is attracted by the design the packaging and label, and at the time of consuming it, is what I was expecting.
Case 2. Unattractive Package Design + Good Product
If packaging design fails to arouse interest, it is quite difficult to attract a buyer. However, if in spite of this,
the product sells well, the danger is that very soon will appear a competitor with a similar range of quality,
but a more attractive packaging design. In this case, there to make graphical adjustments to ensure consistency.
Case 3. Attractive Package Design + Bad Product
The first purchase on many occasions is made by packaging design and brand of the product, but the second
is already closely related to the quality of the product itself. If no rebuy can be two aspects in the majority of
cases: one, the product was not to the liking of the consumer or, two, the packaging creates false expectations
that the product fails to meet. It is necessary to then assess a fit in the design to position it properly.
Case 4. Unattractive Package + Bad Product
In this case we speak of the worst possible scenarios. It is a viable product that much will soon be forced to
discontinue it. As we can see, in all the cases mentioned, design, packaging and product are a Trinomial that
must be in balance and in constant transformation, according to the needs of market exchange.

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

The product life cycle is the process a product goes through from when it is first introduced into the market
until it declines or is removed from the market. The life cycle has four stages - introduction, growth, maturity
and decline.
While some products may stay in a prolonged maturity state, all products eventually phase out of the market
due to several factors including saturation, increased competition, decreased demand and dropping sales.

15
Additionally, companies use PLC analysis (examining their product's life cycle) to create strategies to sustain
their product's longevity or change it to meet with market demand or developing technologies.
4 Stages of the Product Life Cycle
Generally, there are four stages to the product life cycle, from the product's development to its decline in value
and eventual retirement from the market.
1. Introduction: Once a product has been developed after research, the first stage is its introduction stage. In
this stage, the product is being released into the market. When a new product is released, it is often a high-
stakes time in the product's life cycle - although it does not necessarily make or break the product's eventual
success. During the introduction stage, marketing and promotion are at a high - and the company often invests
the most in promoting the product and getting it into the hands of consumers. It is in this stage that the company
is first able to get a sense of how consumers respond to the product, if they like it and how successful it may
be. However, it is also often a heavy-spending period for the company with no guarantee that the product will
pay for itself through sales. Costs are generally very high and there is typically little competition. The principle
goals of the introduction stage are to build demand for the product and get it into the hands of consumers,
hoping to later cash in on its growing popularity.
2. Growth: By the growth stage, consumers are already taking to the product and increasingly buying it. The
product concept is proven and is becoming more popular - and sales are increasing. Other companies become
aware of the product and its space in the market, which is beginning to draw attention and increasingly pull in
revenue. If competition for the product is especially high, the company may still heavily invest in advertising
and promotion of the product to beat out competitors. As a result of the product growing, the market itself
tends to expand. The product in the growth stage is typically tweaked to improve functions and features. As
the market expands, more competition often drives prices down to make the specific products competitive.
However, sales are usually increasing in volume and generating revenue. Marketing in this stage is aimed at
increasing the product's market share.
3. Maturity: When a product reaches maturity, its sales tend to slow or even stop - signaling a largely saturated
market. At this point, sales can even start to drop. Pricing at this stage can tend to get competitive, signaling
margin shrinking as prices begin falling due to the weight of outside pressures like competition or lower
demand. Marketing at this point is targeted at fending off competition, and companies will often develop new
or altered products to reach different market segments.
Given the highly saturated market, it is typically in the maturity stage of a product that less successful
competitors are pushed out of competition - often called the "shake-out point." In this stage, saturation is
reached and sales volume is maxed out. Companies often begin innovating to maintain or increase their market
share, changing or developing their product to meet with new demographics or developing technologies. The
maturity stage may last a long time or a short time depending on the product.
4. Decline: Although companies will generally attempt to keep the product alive in the maturity stage as long
as possible, decline for every product is inevitable. In the decline stage, product sales drop significantly and
consumer behavior changes as there is less demand for the product. The company's product loses more and
more market share, and competition tends to cause sales to deteriorate.

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Extending the Product Life Cycle

For successful products, a business will want to do all it can to extend the growth and maturity phases of the
life cycle, and to delay the decline phase. What can businesses do to extend the product life cycle? To do so,
it may decide to implement extension strategies - which are intended to extend the life of the product before
it goes into decline. Examples of extension strategies are:

1. Advertising – try to gain a new audience or remind the current audience

2. Price reduction – more attractive to customers
3. Adding value – add new features to the current product, e.g. improving the specifications on a
smartphone
4. Explore new markets – selling the product into new geographical areas or creating a version targeted
at different segments
5. New packaging – brightening up old packaging or subtle changes

MARKINGS ON PACKAGE
Correct and complete marking of packages helps to prevent incorrect handling, accidents, incorrect delivery,
losses of weight and volume and Customs fines. Marking must be clear and precise. Its color should stand out
clearly from that of the package; it is usually black in color. Alternatively, it may also be applied on adhesive
labels. Where possible, black symbols on a white background should be used. Both when the marking is
applied directly onto the package and when adhesive labels are used, care must be taken to ensure that marking
is applied in a legible and durable manner.

Adequate marking is an crucial component of the package. If the marking varies from the details on the
shipping documents, objections may be raised by the Customs authorities. If handling marking is inadequate,
those parties whose actions during transport, handling or storage of the cargo have caused damage may be
excluded from liability.

Complete marking must comprise the following three parts:

1. Shipping mark

Identification mark: e.g. initial letters of receiver or shipper or of receiver’s company name
Identification number: e.g. receiver’s order number
Total number of items in the complete consignment

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 Number of the package in the consignment
Place and port of destination
2. Information mark

Country of origin: The country of origin must be stated in accordance with the provisions of
the particular countries. Statement of the country of origin is often mandatory. In some cases
it is not desired and, if contractually agreed, may even have to be omitted. Failure to comply
with such agreements entails a risk of blacklisting.
Indication of weight of package: from a gross weight of 1000 kg, packages must be marked
with details of weight. With regard to ease of transport, handling and storage, the relevant
standards also recommend indicating weight from a lower threshold.
Dimensions of packages: standards specify that dimensions be stated in centimeters.

3. Handling instructions

‘Handling marks’ help to ensure that greater care is taken with cargo handling. It must be possible to tell,

whether the package is sensitive to heat or moisture

whether it is at risk of breakage
where the top and bottom are and where the center of gravity is located
where loading tackle may be slung
The symbols for package handling instructions are internationally standardized in ISO R/780 (International
Organization for Standardization) and in DIN 55 402 (DIN, German Institute for Standardization). The
symbols must never be omitted as they are self-explanatory and so overcome language problems in
international transport operations.

Designation Symbol Explanation

Fragile,
The symbol should be applied to easily broken cargoes. Cargoes marked with this
Handle with
symbol should be handled carefully and should never be tipped over or slung.
care

Any other kind of point load should also be avoided with cargoes marked with this
Use no hooks symbol. The symbol does not automatically prohibit the use of the plate hooks
used for handling bagged cargo.

The package must always be transported, handled and stored in such a way that
the arrows always point upwards. Rolling, swinging, severe tipping or tumbling
Top
or other such handling must be avoided. The cargo need not, however, be stored
„on top“.

Compliance with the symbol is best achieved if the cargo is kept under the coolest
Keep away possible conditions. In any event, it must be kept away from additional sources of
from heat heat. It may be appropriate to enquire whether prevailing or anticipated
temperatures may be harmful. This label should also be used for goods, such as

18
(solar butter and chocolate, which anybody knows should not be exposed to heat, in order
radiation) to prevent losses.

Protect from
heat and Storage as for the preceding symbol. The cargo must additionally be protected
radioactive from radioactivity.
sources

The symbol indicates merely where the cargo should be slung, but not the method
Sling here of lifting. If the symbols are applied equidistant from the middle or center of
gravity, the package will hang level if the slings are of identical length. If this is
not the case, the slinging equipment must be shortened on one side.

Cargoes bearing this symbol must be protected from excessive humidity and must
Keep dry accordingly be stored under cover. If particularly large or bulky packages cannot
be stored in warehouses or sheds, they must be carefully covered with tarpaulins.

This symbol is intended to provide a clear indication of the position of the center
Center of of gravity. To be meaningful, this symbol should only be used where the center of
gravity gravity is not central. The meaning is unambiguous if the symbol is applied onto
two upright surfaces at right angles to each other.

No hand The absence of this symbol on packages amounts to permission to use a hand truck
truck here on them.

The maximum stacking load must be stated as „… kg max.“. Since such marking
Stacking
is sensible only on packages with little loading capacity, cargo bearing this symbol
limitation
should be stowed in the uppermost layer.

Stating that the package may be clamped at the indicated point is logically
Clamp here
equivalent to a prohibition of clamping anywhere else.

According to regulations, the symbol should either be provided with the suffix
Temperature „…°C“ for a specific temperature or, in the case of a temperature range, with an
limitations upper („…°C max.“) and lower („…°C min.“) temperature limit. The
corresponding temperatures or temperature limits should also be noted on the
consignment note.

Do not use This symbol should only be applied to the sides where the forklift truck cannot be
forklift truck used. Absence of the symbol on other sides of the package amounts to permission
here to use forklift trucks on these sides.

19
 Contact with packages bearing this symbol should be avoided at low levels of
Electrostatic
sensitive relative humidity, especially if insulating footwear is being worn or the
device ground/floor is nonconductive. Low levels of relative humidity must in particular
be expected on hot, dry summer days and very cold winter days.

A barrier layer which is (virtually) impermeable to water vapor and contains

Do not desiccants for corrosion protection is located beneath the outer packaging. This
destroy protection will be ineffective if the barrier layer is damaged. Since the symbol has
barrier not yet been approved by the ISO, puncturing of the outer shell must in particular
be avoided for any packages bearing the words „Packed with desiccants“.

Tear off here This symbol is intended only for the receiver.

HAZARDS ON THE PACKAGE

It is very important to have the goods arrive at their destinations in satisfactory condition and at minimum
expense. The challenge is that products can be damaged and that packaging materials, labor and shipping
activities all cost money. But with understanding, analysis and appropriate designs, both safe arrival and
effective cost control can be reasonably achieved.
Its important to understand the hazards of distribution. In general, there are four categories of hazards: Shock
(drops, impacts), vibration (during movement or transportation), compression (packages stacked in storage or
vehicles) and atmospheric (temperature, humidity, altitude, static electricity, etc.).
In addition to understanding the hazards, we need to know how the goods might react to these hazards. Can
they break, deform, fatigue, leak, scratch, discolor, corrode or just stop working properly? What constitutes
failure or unacceptability? If possible, it is best to quantify damage definitions so that all stakeholders know
and agree upon the limits of product acceptance.
Then, in order to develop appropriate packages, we must know what packaging materials and configurations
are available and how to best apply them. Outer containers for parcel distribution can include various
constructions of boxes, bags, pails, cans, tubes or envelopes. Interior packaging can include air pillows, bubble
or cellular sheeting, various paper forms, loose-fill materials, corrugated or solid fiber pads and structures,
desiccants and corrosion inhibitors, foam plastic cushions, molded pulp, foam-in-place materials, plastic films,

20
suspension elements and much more. The ideal solution is for the package to provide exactly the proper type
and amount of protection needed by the product not more, not less and at the lowest possible overall cost.

Parcel Distribution Hazards

Shock: This hazard of parcel distribution can occur when packages are dropped; or are struck by other
packages or by sorting mechanisms; or shift and fall during transit. In this environment, there are many shocks
of relatively low severity (equivalent to drops from relatively low heights), with typically only a few impacts
equivalent to drops from 30 to 40 inches or higher.
Although it is recognized that impacts predominately occur on and around the base of the package (bottom
face, edges and corners), packages should be designed to protect against impacts from any direction. Base is
generally defined as the bottom surface when the package is in its most stable orientation; sorting operations
cannot always honor up arrows or orientation labels.
Long, slender packages may be subjected to bridging during sorting. Bridging can occur during conveyor or
chute movement when a long package gets supported only by the ends. It may then be susceptible to damage
from even relatively mild impacts near its center. Large, flat packages (mirrors, panels) can be more prone
than other types of packages to damage from impacts on their faces.
Typically, only corrugated boxes with weights less than 70 to 75 pounds travel through the carriers automatic
sorting systems. Large, heavy, non-corrugated and non-rectangular packages (or products with no packaging,
such as tires or spools of wire) are handled in various ways, depending on the carrier and location, and
therefore may be subjected to more severe environments.
Vibration: Potentially damaging vibration may occur during transit by road, rail or air. The severity of motion
is low compared to shock, but long exposure times (hours or days) can cause abrasion and scuffing, loosening
of closures and fasteners, fatigue and cumulative damage. Parcel carriers use a number of different transport
modes, including trucks of various types, trailers on flatbed railcars, aircraft and others. The modes can have
unique vibration characteristics, and packaged products can react differently to each.
Long-haul vehicles are loaded to utilize essentially all of the interior space. This means that package
orientation within the load cannot be predetermined, and therefore, packages must be able to withstand
vibration in any and all directions. Long and flat packages may not be fully supported along their lengths or
faces, potentially causing increased stresses.
Compression: Warehouse storage is not generally a part of parcel distribution, but packages are stacked in the
long-haul transport vehicles and the resultant compression forces are dynamic (varying due to vibration)
during transit. Dynamic compression can be several times the magnitude of static compression. Since package
orientation within the load cannot be predetermined, packages must be able to withstand this compression in
any direction.
The average density of loads in long-haul vehicles can range to 12 or more pounds per cubic foot. Since any
particular package can be at the bottom of the stack, the usual approach is to design for dynamic forces
equivalent to average load densities at full vehicle heights.
The carriers local pick-up and delivery vans generally have interior shelves to hold the packages, so the
compressive forces in these vehicles are much less. But the vibration signatures are different from the
signatures of long-haul, so the potential for damage still exists.
Atmospheric Conditions: These conditions can affect the characteristics of both products and packages. High
humidity weakens corrugated; high temperatures can weaken plastic, and low temperatures can tend to make
it brittle; high altitudes can distort or damage air-containing or sealed components; static discharges can
destroy electronics; and so on. Packages must be designed to protect their products under atmospheric
extremes, including winter temperatures, summer temperatures plus the temperature rises in closed vehicles

21
and containers, near 100% relative humidity, altitudes to 20,000 feet for unpressurized feeder aircraft and
other conditions as appropriate.

TESTS ON TRANSPORT PACKAGES

Any unacceptable biological, chemical and physical property that may result in an injury is called hazard. A
transit package is mainly expected to offer protection against handling and transportation hazards while a
consumer package should ensure that the product reaches the ultimate consumer in prime condition, free from
contamination by dirt, moisture, heat, insects, etc during transit and storage. There are 3 classifications of
hazards.
1. Mechanical
2. Climatic
3. Biological (Biodeterioration)

I. MECHANICAL TESTS
There are mainly 4 types of mechanical hazards. They are drop & impact (shock), vibration, compression and
inclined impact. 5 tests are available to check these hazards.
1. Drop test
This test helps to measure the ability of the container and inside packaging materials to provide protection to
its contents, and to measure the ability of the container to withstand rough handling, and also provide
information useful in improving the design of the container. The two common types of apparatus available
are:
 Divided Table top Drop tester
 Hoist type with suitable slings, tripping device and hooks.
In the first type of tester, (which is very useful with packages which are difficult to sling), called the Table
drop tester, the package is held or supported in the desired position of fall and the trap door opened, therby
projecting the package on to the floor. The height of drop, the position of fall and the type of floor can be
altered at will. The second type of tester consists of some form of release mechanism from which the package
is suspended by means of a sling which allows it to be dropped in any particular position onto any type of
floor from any selected height.
Drop test results help to conclude the adequacy of packaging and to ascertain the relative ability of the
container to withstand the normal hazards encountered by a container from the time it is packed to the time it
is opened for use. The information which may be obtained from the test is of great value to the shipper and
the container manufacturer. It is frequently possible, through the analysis of results to reduce the cost of
package, or to improve the design of the package to preclude damage in transit. It affords the manufacturer of
product a knowledge that the design of the product either does or does not, lend itself to economical packaging.
2. Vibration test
The test is conducted to determine:
a. The ability of the container
b. The protection offered by materials used for interior packaging,
c. The strength of the closures used.
Vibration shocks could be encountered both during in plant handling and in shipment. Internal handling on
conveyor and industrial trucks could produce damage to such highly fragile products as electronic
components. However, the vast majority of vibration damage occurs in transit.

22
The effects of vibration are;
a) Structural failure
b) Reduction in container rigidity through weaving and swaying usually aggravated by wracking and
skewing if the container bears a top load
c) Exterior and interior damage through abrasion
d) Damage to content
A vibrating table is used for studying this type of hazard. The vibrating table consists of a bed which is driven
by two eccentrics, one at each end, connected in phase with one another. To the top of the vibrating bed a
table is attached, and the table describes a circular harmonic type of vibration, when the equipment is running.
The amplitude of the vibration on this instrument is fixed to one inch, and the frequency may be varied
continuously from about 120 cycles a minute to about 360 cycles a minute. The test helps to study the possible
package failure or content damage, and the weakness (loosening of bonds, separation of container layer,
abrasion of smooth surfaces, loss of resilience in cushioning material, etc) that may develop during transit.
3. Compression Test
This test is carried out, generally, on empty containers to measure the ability of the container to resist external
compressive loads applied to face and when applied to diagonally opposite edges or corners. Compression
stresses may be caused by:
1. Static condition due to the superimposition of weight onto merchandise
2. Dynamic stresses of impact stresses.
While the static compression is primarily experienced in stacking, the dynamic compressive stresses generally
result from impact shock in handling and transit. During storage or transport packages are stacked to the
maximum height possible. Consequently the bottom layer is subjected to compression and hence has to bear
the load of the package stacked over it. If the container is not strong enough, the force of compression is
transmitted to the contents. This is particularly so, in case of fiber board container and currently used bamboo
basket for fruits and vegetables. Thus the container used should have adequate compression strength , given
for a specific purpose. This is determined by means of standard compression tester. The data obtained would
indicate the strength of the container for short period of stacking, for long period it is preferable to take the
compression strength as one third of test value.

4. Inclined Impact Test (Contour Test)

This test helps to study the extent of crushing, breaking, cracking, distortion and shifting during handling,
storage and transport. These are mainly due to shunting shocks. This test is carried out to determine the ability
of container or interior packaging to provide protection to the contents when subjected to impact stresses. This
test is particularly valuable for testing large, odd shaped, or heavily loaded containers that would be difficult
or impossible to test by other methods. The study is carried out generally with an Inclined-plane Impact Tester.
This consists of a track inclined at 10% to the horizontal, on which a dolly can be released so as to impact at
the wooden buffers placed at right angles across the end. According to the distance of the incline from which
the dolly is released, the impact speed can be varied upto about 8 m.p.h. The results of the tests are indicative
of the effect experienced by the package when it is subjected to shunting shocks of side impacts during transit.
From the results obtained, it is possible to design suitable containers or to improve the design of the existing
containers or interior packing.

23
5. Rolling Test
The package, standing on its base, is slowly pushed to rotate about one edge of the base and allowed to fall
over on the side face. After this impact, the package is lifted, balanced on its edge and then allowed to fall
over on the top. The procedure is repeated until the package once again stands on its base. The whole sequence
from base to base travelling in the direction at a right angle to that taken in the first half of the operation is
repeated. This test helps to evaluate the overall strength of the container and the cushioning provided inside,
and any failure of the contents. Drum test helps to evaluate loaded shipping containers w.r.t general overall
durability and for the protection afforded to the contents against certain hazards od handling and shipments.

II. CLIMATIC TESTS

1. Rain Test: A simulated rainfall of 4 x 1 inches per hour should be produced by a water spray nozzle
designed to emit water in small droplets rather than a fine mist. The rainfall should be dispersed uniformly
over the test area. Duration of the test is generally, 2 hours.
2. Sand and Dust Test: The purpose of sand and dust tests is to evaluate the resistance of a package to the
penetration of sand and dust, to determine the erosive effects, of blowing sand and dust on exposed items and
to determine the immediate effects as the malfunction of moving parts, by the presence of sand and dust. A
standardized mixture of sand and dust of density 0.1 to 0.5 gm/cu.ft is used to create an atmosphere for this.
The temperature of this atmosphere is maintained at 770F for a period of 6 hours and then increased to 1600F
for another 6 hours. A sand and dust velocity of upto 2300 ft.per.min can be maintained as specified. Items
which are always shielded from blowing sand and dust should be tested under standard velocity condition of
200 ft.per.min. Items which may be exposed to blowing sand and dust should be tested under optional velocity
condition of 2,300 ft.per.min.
3. Salt Spray Test: It is used to evaluate the resistance of package to corrosion by salt spray and to serve as a
general standard for corrosion resistance. Package is exposed to 50 hours to a wet , dense fog generated by
20% solution of sodium chloride in water. The solution is maintained at a pH of between 6.5 to 7.2.
Temperature of fog being maintained at 95 degree F.
4. Fungus Resistance Test: The package is exposed to a composite spore suspension of 10 ml of distilled
water containing approximately 0.005% dioctyl sodium sulfacuccinate. The item is placed in a humidity
chamber and exposed to a relative humidity of 25% for 28 days. The temperature is maintained at 86 degree
F. If, at the end of 28days, test items have fungus growth on more than 4% of their exposed surface, the
material is considered to favor fungus growth. If 2 % or less of the exposed surface is covered, the material is
considered to be inert for fungus growth. All the materials used in the fabrication of shipping containers should
be tested for fungus resistance.
In general, it might be said, that all these tests would help to conclude:
• The overall durability of the container.
• Any possible reduction in the cost of packaging.
• Improvement required if the design of the box to preclude damage in the transit.
• Adequacy of the cushioning used.

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DESICCANTS
A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that is used to induce or sustain a state of dryness (desiccation) in its
vicinity; it is the opposite of a humectant. Commonly encountered pre-packaged desiccants are solids
that absorb water. Desiccants for specialized purposes may be in forms other than solid, and may work through
other principles, such as chemical bonding of water molecules. They are commonly encountered in foods to
retain crispness.
Types
Although some desiccants are chemically inert, others are extremely reactive and require specialized handling
techniques. The most common desiccant is silica, an otherwise inert, nontoxic, water-insoluble white solid.
Tens of thousands of tons are produced annually for this purpose. Other common desiccants include activated
charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (typically, zeolites). Alcohols and acetones
are also dehydrating agents.
1. Indicator type desiccants or Colored saturation indicators: Sometimes a humidity indicator is included in
the desiccant to show, by color changes, the degree of water-saturation of the desiccant. One commonly used
indicator is cobalt chloride (CoCl2). Anhydrous cobalt chloride is blue. When it bonds with two water
molecules, (CoCl2•2H2O), it turns purple. Further hydration results in the pink hexaaquacobalt(II) chloride
complex [Co(H2O)6]Cl2.
2. Non-indicator type desiccants or Performance efficiency desiccants: One measure of desiccant efficiency
is the ratio (or percentage) of water storable in the desiccant relative to the mass of desiccant. Another measure
is the residual relative humidity of the air or other fluid being dried. The performance of any desiccant varies
with temperature and both relative humidity and absolute humidity. To some extent, desiccant performance
can be precisely described, but most commonly, the final choice of which desiccant best suits a given situation,
how much of it to use, and in what form, is made based on testing and practical experience.

Applications
One example of desiccant usage is in the manufacture of insulated windows where zeolite spheroids fill a
rectangular spacer tube at the perimeter of the panes of glass. The desiccant helps to prevent the condensation
of moisture between the panes. Another use of zeolites is in the dryer component of air conditioning systems
to help maintain the effectiveness of the refrigerant. Desiccants are also commonly used to protect goods in
shipping containers against moisture damage. Hygroscopic cargo, such as cocoa, coffee, and various nuts and
grains, are particularly susceptible to mold and rot when exposed to condensation and humidity. Because of
this, shippers often take precautionary measures by deploying desiccants to protect against cargo loss.
Desiccants induce dryness in any environment and reduce the amount of moisture present in air. Desiccants
come in various forms and have found widespread use in the food, pharmaceuticals, packing, electronics and
many manufacturing industries.
Desiccants are used in different kinds of livestock farming to dry newborn animals. The use of a good desiccant
can help them dry quicker and save energy, which can be crucial for the animal's development. Another use
is to reduce bacteria and pathogens that thrive in wet surfaces, reducing bacteria pressure. However, some
desiccants have a very high pH-level, which can be harmful for an animal's skin.
Desiccants are also used to remove water from solvents, typically required by chemical reactions that do not
tolerate water, e.g., the Grignard reaction. The method generally, though not always, involves mixing the
solvent with the solid desiccant.

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Advantages of the desiccant method

• Desiccants provide excellent corrosion protection to both metallic and nonmetallic items
• Removal of the desiccant on delivery to the receiver is straightforward, unlike the removal of protective
films in the protective coating method. The package contents are immediately available.
• No particular occupational hygiene requirements apply as the desiccant is nonhazardous.
Disadvantages of the desiccant method

• Placement of the desiccant bags and heat sealing of the barrier films are relatively labor-intensive.
• The slightest damage to the barrier layer may negate the effectiveness of corrosion protection.
• Calculating the required number of desiccant units is not entirely simple and it is easy to
overcalculate. However, too much protection is better than too little.
• Humidity indicators inside the package are not very reliable as they are only valid for certain
temperature ranges.
CUSHIONING MATERIALS
Purpose of using cushioning materials
Goods are frequently transported which are particularly sensitive to mechanical stresses and which must
consequently be protected from damage due to impact, jolting or vibration in transit. They are thus
additionally protected by cushioning materials inside the shipping packaging. Fragile goods, such as glass,
ceramics, porcelain, or sensitive electronic products, such as computers and electronic home entertainment
equipment, are particularly susceptible to mechanical stresses and should be protected. In addition to
protecting the package contents, cushioning materials may also be used to adjust the packages to a standard
size, in which case they act as adapters between non-standard package contents and the package.
Cushioning materials absorb a proportion of the kinetic energy arising when the package suffers impact or is
dropped and increase the braking distance of the package contents. Correct selection and sizing of the
cushioning material thus ensure that the package content suffers no damage.
Various kinds of cushioning materials
Cushioning materials can be classified into 3 – space fillers, resilient CM and non-resilient CM.
1. Space fillers
a) Ground Cork:

• Cork is made from the outerbark of the holm oak.

• It is tough light and elastic.
• Poor fungus resistance.
• High dusting.
• Good moisture absorption.
• Low bulk density and high compression set.
• Good damping characteristic.
b) Saw dust and wood wool/wood shavings:

• It is a by-product or waste product of wood-working operations.

• Saw dust composed of small chippings of wood and is in granular form.
• Wood shavings are made of slivers cut from the logs and is in the form of a film.
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 • Good moisture absorption.
• Good compression set.
• Corrosive.
• Low physical resistance.
c) Paddy straw and dry grass:

• Straw and hay are cheap loose cushioning materials used to fill voids.
• They absorb moisture and corrosive in nature.
• Abrasive and high dusting characteristic.
• Good damping characteristics.
• Poor fungus resistance.
• Poor resilience.
d) Paper shavings or shredded paper

• Absorb moisture
• poor fungus resistance
2. Resilient Cushioning materials
a) Rubberized fiber cushioning:
Rubberized fiber cushioning provides high quality protection for demanding items. This cushioning is made
from animal hair or coconut fiber, which is cleaned, converted into nonwoven mats, coated with rubber and
vulcanized to form solidly bonded sheets.
Rubberized fiber cushioning is relatively insensitive to the effects of moisture and high or low temperatures
and exhibits very good recovery even on long-term exposure to loads.
b) Plastic foam cushioning materials
Plastic foam cushioning materials are mainly made from polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU) and
polyethylene (PE). Plastic foams are available in flexible, semirigid and rigid forms. Their cushioning
characteristics are determined not only by their specific weight but also by their cell structure. The particular
characteristics of the various starting materials are briefly described below.
i) Polystyrene (PS): PS is a somewhat soft, elastic foamed plastic with closed cells containing the air required
to provide resilience. Recovery is, however, rather limited. PS is not itself hygroscopic and thus remains fully
functional on exposure to moisture. It should be noted, however, that, due to its structure (enclosed capillaries),
PS cushioning material nevertheless has a certain tendency to absorb or release water vapor. Appropriate
action must accordingly be taken to protect package contents which are at risk of corrosion.
PS cushioning material is produced both as relatively large moldings, such as cushioning frames, edge or
corner pads, and as a loose fill cushioning material, known as PS chips. When large moldings are used, the
cushioning area often has to be reduced as the static area loads of the package contents are not sufficient to
ensure effective cushioning.
ii) Polyurethane (PU): Polyurethanes are produced in flexible, semirigid and rigid forms with an open cell
structure. It is primarily flexible and semirigid grades of polyurethane which are used in packaging
applications. The shock absorbing properties of PU foams increase with foam hardness, while recovery and
elasticity decline. Especially on repeated exposure to identical stresses, this characteristic may cause problems
with an excessively rigid grade of foam as there is a continual decline in recovery.

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Polyurethane foams are produced as relatively large moldings, generally by direct foaming around the item to
be packaged. If this is not feasible, the moldings may also be prefoamed. One disadvantage of PU foams is
their relatively complex production process. Their ideal application is thus not for mass-produced items, but
instead for packaging and cushioning constantly differing items.
iii) Polyethylene (PE): Like polystyrenes, polyethylene foams are closed-cell products. They exhibit excellent
cushioning characteristics, which are comparable with those of rubberized fiber cushioning. Even when
exposed to major loads, they retain their cushioning capability.
PE foams do, however, have two considerable disadvantages. Firstly, they are costly, which excludes them
from many applications, secondly they do not have good weather resistance.
c) Airbags:
Airbags consist of an elastic film which is inflated with air. When at rest, only the static load generated by the
weight of the package contents bears upon the cushioning. When dynamic loads occur, these are absorbed by
compression of the cushion.The quantity of inflation air may be varied in accordance with the particular
properties and requirements of the package contents. Airbags are commercially available in various sizes and
designs, ranging from spheres, standard cushions to corner and edge cushioning and tubular cushioning.
Airbags are mainly used in containers and railroad freight cars and only rarely in trucks.
Advantages of airbags are ease of handling, non-hygroscopic, highly versatile, largely insensitive to extreme
climatic conditions (heat, cold) and elevated recovery & ideal shock absorption characteristics
Disadvantage of airbags is susceptibility to pointed and sharp articles, such as nails or the like.
d) Bubble films:
Bubble films function in essentially the same way as airbags. They consist of two plastic films, one of which
is completely flat and the other has small, round indentations, which, once the two films have been heat sealed
together, contain the necessary air. Bubble films are mainly used inside packaging containers. The advantages
and disadvantages are the same as for airbags.
e) Expanded polystyrene (thermocol)
It is a resilient cushioning material. Introduced in 1950. In packaging industry, it was introduced in 1970.
They are available in granules of different grades. Three phases in Manufacturing: Pre-expansion, Maturation
and Final expansion. Moulded into any shape. Very light material. Available in various colors. Time required
for packaging is reduced. Not effected by water. Smooth and soft surface. Thermal conductivity is low. No
dusting. Good resilience (variation can be obtained. Less corrosive. Fair compression set. Used in electronics,
chemical and pharmacy industries.

3. Non-resilient cushioning materials

a) Moulded pulp containers.

• Can be defined as article molded from a mixture of water and any type of fibrous material capable of
being treated by normal paper making process.
• Used in packing electrical and engineering components.
• Packaging of highly finished machine parts.
• Inter-departmental transit during manufacture.
b) Rigid plastic foams made of PVC, Polyurethane, etc.

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Design Constraints
The design of the cushion system is determined by many factors as follows
Product size: The overall linear measurement of the product, such as length, width, height or diameter that
affect the design of the cushion system and may help define the shipping environment
Product weight: The design must take into account the gross weight of the product in lb(kg) and the location
of the centre of gravity of the product. If much of the product weight is substantially off center, the cushioning
medium will have to be distributed accordingly.
Product fragility – The designer must know what level of mechanical shock cause damage. Damage may be
cosmetic, functional, or both, In any case it may represent as unacceptable change in the product. Mechanical
shock fragility is sometimes expressed as the G-factor of a product, where G is the dimensionless ratio between
a specific aceleration and the acceleration due to gravity.
Distribution environment hazards – Know what type of hazard are present? Standard Practice for
performance testing of shipping container system: recently issued performance test , provides good relation
between the type of shipping mode, degree of hazard presented, and the test needed to determine the ability
to successfully ship through the environment.
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