Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology Calicut

EE4001D INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

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 EE4001D INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

Module 1: Instrumentation and Calibration, Signals and their representation (10 hours)
Measurement, Instrumentation and Calibration - Introduction to Instrumentation
systems – performance characteristics, static and dynamic characteristics, Errors in
measurement - gross Errors, systematic Errors statistical Analysis of Random Errors
Calibration and Standards -Process of calibration, classification of standards,
standards for calibration.
Signals and their representation. Electrical Measuring Systems- Dynamics of
Instrument systems, generalized performance of systems electrical Networks
Mechanical systems – Electromechanical systems Thermal systems Fluidic systems
Filtering and Dynamic Compensation.

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References:

References:
1. D.V.S Murty, Transducers & Instrumentation,1st ed., Prentice Hall of India (pvt ltd), 2012
2. Ernest O. Doebelin and Dhanesh N, Manik, Measurement Systems Application & design, 5th
ed.,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2007.
3. Klaas B Klaassen, Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation, Cambridge University Press,
1996.
4. A.D. Helfrick and W.D. Cooper, Modern Electronics Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques,
Pearson Education India,2016.
5. Alan S. Morris and Reza Langari, 2nd ed., Measurement and Instrumentation, Theory and
Application,
Academic Press, 2015
6. Bela G. Liptak, Instrument Engineers' Handbook Process Control and Optimisation,, 3rd ed.,
vol. 2,
CRC Press, 2012.

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 Evaluation Scheme
Total marks: 100

Evaluation Plan : All questions will be compulsory

Mid sem Exam : 30 marks

Course Project : 10 marks
Assignment : 10 marks
End semester examination : 50 marks [All portions covered in the
course]
Grading Policy : Absolute Grading

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 Module 1: Instrumentation and Calibration, Signals and their
representation
Concepts of Measurement:

• Measurement is the act, or the result of a quantitative comparison between a

predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude.

• A measurement is made by comparing the unknown quantity with predefined standard.

Example: Length of the wall is expressed as 5 Cm, after comparing with pre marked Tape.
Measurement of room temperature
Measurement of steam pressure in a boiler, in order to control the same.
Continuous measurement of various parameter ( Flow, Level, temperature ) in
chemical reactor

Measurements can be defined as a process of empirical but objective assignment of

numbers to properties of objects or events of the real world in such a way as to describe
them.

Measurements is nothing but quantifying an event or a thing.

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 Concepts of Measurement
Purpose of measurement:

• To understand an event or an operation

• To monitor an event or an operation
• To control an event or an operation
• To collect data for future analysis
• To validate an engineering design

• The procedure and apparatus employed for obtaining the comparison, however, must be
provable; the procedure for this is called calibration Measurand.

• The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object of measurement in
an instrumentation system is variously termed as "measurand“, "measurement variable",
"instrumentation variable" or "process variable".

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 Concepts of Measurement

Measurand

• The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object of

measurement in an instrumentation system is variously termed as "measurand”,
"measurement variable", "instrumentation variable" or "process variable".

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 Methods of measurement

The broad classification of methods of measurement are as follows:

• Direct comparison methods.

• Indirect comparison methods.

1. Direct comparison method:

• In this method the parameter to be measured is directly compared with either a primary
or a secondary standard.

• Direct comparison is quite commonly used for measurements of length. However, for
measurement of mass the problem becomes much more intricate since it is just not
possible for human beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass.

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 Methods of measurement

• Direct comparison methods.

• Primary standard are maintained by national standard laboratories is different parts of the
world for various quantities like length, mass, time ,ampere, voltage, resistance,
capacitance , inductance, temperature and luminous intensity.

• Secondary standard are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories. The accuracy of the primary standards are of the order of several parts in 10
^8 whereas that of the secondary standards are of the order of several parts in 10 ^6.

• For example , the primary standard for voltage is a saturated Weston cell. If the unknown
voltage is compared with this cell then the method is direct comparison method.

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 Methods of measurement

2. Indirect comparison method:

• In this method the comparison is done with a standard or a meter which is

compared and checked with a primary or secondary standards which are kept at
national laboratories periodically.

• For example an unknown voltage is measured using a voltmeter which is

periodically calibrated with primary or secondary standard.

• As it is difficult to compare the unknown quantity directly with primary or

secondary standards, most of the measurements are done by the indirect
method.

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 Methods of measurement

2. Indirect comparison method:

• These methods for measurement are used in those cases where the desired
parameter is difficult to be measured directly, but it has got some correlation
with some other parameter which can be easily measured.

• Example: The elimination of bacteria in milk is directly dependent upon its

temperature. Thus the bacteria elimination can be measured indirectly by
measuring the temperature of the milk.

Resistance Measurement by direct and indirect method-?

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 Methods of measurement
Based on Principle of operation

I Deflection method
• The value of the measured quantity is directly indicated by the deflection of the pointer
on a calibrated scale.( Eg. Bourdon pressure gauge.

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 Methods of measurement
Based on Principle of operation

II Null method of measurement

• The effect of unknown quantity is balanced by the application of another effect

so as to maintain the deflection caused by the difference between the effects, at
zero.
• The magnitude of opposing effect which is quantifiable, gives a measure of
unknown quantity.
• Voltage balancing potentiometer which is employed to measure the output of a
thermocouple, the thermo emf is balanced with a known voltage obtained from
a variable voltage source.

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 Methods of measurement

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 Methods of measurement

Null method offers higher accuracy of measurement than by a deflection method.

• The unknown quantity is compared with a source which is calibrated with a

standard directly.
• The sensitivity of the detector used is very high as it has to measure only a
small range around zero.
• The detector need not be calibrated.
• The conditions of the measuring quantity is not altered leading to zero loading
effect.

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 Methods of measurement

Following are the three modes of measurement :

• Primary measurements.
• Secondary measurements.
• Tertiary measurements.

1. Primary measurements :

• In this case the sought value of a parameter is determined by comparing it directly with
"reference standards".

• There is no conversion of measurand in terms of length.

Examples :

• Measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock.

• Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler.
• Matching of two colors when judging the temperature of a red hot steel.

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 Methods of measurement

2. Secondary measurements :

The indirect measurements involving 'one translation' are called secondary

measurements.

Examples :

• The pressure measurement by manometers.

• The temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometers.

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 Methods of measurement

Self operated type:

The measurement device does not require external power supply ( Hg in glass
thermometer)

Powered Type:
The measurement device needs external power supply for its operation ( strain
gauge).

Self – contained
Only load indication is possible.

Remote indicating Type:

The measured quantity can be observed at a remote point using wired/ wireless
transmission technique.

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 Instruments and Measurement Systems

• Measurements involve the use of instruments as a physical means of

determining quantities.

• In complex measurement situations a measuring instrument consists of

separate elements.

• 3 types of instruments

➢ Mechanical instruments

➢ Electrical instruments

➢ Electronic instruments
 Mechanical instruments

• Reliable for static and stable conditions.

• Have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky.

• Potential source of noise.

Vernier Caliper
 Electrical instruments
• More rapid than mechanical instruments in indicating the output.

• Electrical system depends upon mechanical meter movement as

indicating device.

• Mechanical movement has some inertia and these instruments have

a limited time response.

Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter

 Electronic instruments
• Faster response

• Greater flexibility

• High sensitivity

• High reliability

• Low power consumption

CRO
 Classification of Instruments
 Instrument- “ A device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable.”
OR
 “The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or standard quantity is called a Measuring Instrument.”

❑ Absolute instruments : Gives the quantity to be measured in terms of

instrument constant & its deflection. (e.g. Tangent Galvanometer)

❑ Secondary instruments : These instruments are required to be calibrated by

comparing with another standard instrument before putting into use. (e.g. a
voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge)
 Classification of Secondary Instruments
➢ Indicating Instruments
• It indicates the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when it
is being measured.
• The indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.
➢ Recording Instruments
• The instruments which keep a continuous record of the variations of the
magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period
of time.

ECG machine Chart recorders

➢ Integrating Instruments
• The instruments which measure the total amount of either quantity
of electricity or electrical energy supplied over a period of time.

Energymeter
 Functional blocks of a measurement system

Transducer:
produces an output signal which is function of the measured quantity.

Signal conditioning circuit:

A device that modifies the sensor output so that it can be conveniently read by the
end device.( amplifier)

End device:
An indicator or recorder which presents the measured quantity. ( voltmeter)

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 Functional blocks of a measurement system

e.g. mechanical/electronic amplifier

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 Input-Output Configuration of Instruments

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 Input-Output Configuration of Instruments
Types of Inputs

• Desired inputs
Represent the quantities that the instrument is specifically intended to measure.

• Interfering inputs
Represent quantities to which the instrument is unintentionally sensitive.

FD and FI are input-output relations,

The mathematical operations necessary to obtain the output from the input. They represent
different concepts depending on the particular input-output characteristic being described
• Constant
• Nonlinear static function
• Differential equation
• Probability density function € description of outputfrom repeated equal static input..

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 Input-Output Configuration of Instruments

• Modifying inputs

are the quantities that cause a change in the input-output relations for the
desired and interfering inputs.

• they cause a change in FD and/or FI.

• FM,I and FM,D represent the specific manner in which iM affects FI and FD, respectively.

• Note that the effects of both the desired and the interfering inputs may be altered by
the modifying inputs.

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 Performance characteristics of measuring instruments
The performance of an instrument is described by means of quantitative qualities, termed as
its characteristics .
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics.

A set of criteria
• accuracy
• error
• reproducibility
• drift, sensitivity
• dead zone
that provide meaningful description of measurements under static conditions are called
static characteristics.

• The static characteristics pertain to a system where the quantities to be measured are
constant or vary slowly with time.
• The performance criteria that give considerable description about the quality of
measurement, when the instrument is used to measure qualities that are constant or vary
quite slowly.

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 Dynamic Characteristics

• Performance criteria based on dynamic relations (involving rapidly varying quantities)

constitute dynamic characteristics.

• The static characteristics, in a real sense, also influence the quality of measurement under
dynamic conditions, but these characteristics (static) show up as non-linear or statistical
effects in otherwise linear differential equations giving the dynamic characteristics.

• These effects would make the differential equations analytically unmanageable and so the
conventional approach is to treat the two aspects of the problem separately.

• Thus, even though these effects influence the dynamic behavior, the differential equations
of dynamic performance generally neglect the effects of
• dry friction, backlash, hysteresis, statistical scatter etc.

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 Static Characteristics

• True or actual value

The actual magnitude of a signal input to a measuring system which can only be
approached and never evaluated is termed as "true or actual value".

• Indicated value
It is the magnitude of a variable indicated by a measuring instrument.
• Correction
The revision applied to the critical value so that the final result obtained improves
the worth of the result is called "correction".

• Overall error
It is the difference of the scale reading and the true value.
When the instrument is properly designed and correctly adjusted, the consistent
bias in error is very rare.
• Drift
An undesired gradual departure of the instrument output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input, operating conditions or lead is called "drift".

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 Static Characteristics

• Dead zone
It is the range within which variable can vary without being detected.

• Dead time
It is the time before the instrument begins to respond after the measured quantity
has been changed.
• Range.
The region between the limits within which an instrument is designed to operate far
measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is called the "range of the
instrument".

• Sensitivity
The ratio of output response to a specified change in the output.

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 Static Characteristics

• Accuracy

The degree of correctness ( closeness) with which a measuring means yields the "true
value" with reference to accepted engineering standards.

• Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true
value (the average of an infinite number of measured values when the average deviation due
to the various contributing factors tends to zero).

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 Static Characteristics

• Accuracy

It is almost impossible to determine experimentally the true value. The

true value is not indicated by any measurement system due to the loading effects,
lags and mechanical problems (e.g., wear, hysteresis, noise pickup etc.).

Accuracy of the measured signal depends upon the following factors :

• Accuracy of the observer, Whether or not the quantity is being truly

impressed upon the instrument.
• It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
• Accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth

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 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy
Error
Absolute Error
Relative error

• Absolute error is the absolute difference between the measured value and the true
value.

• Relative error

Eg a Flow meter indicates 0.1 m^3/s. when the true flow rate is 0.104 m^3/s.

calculate absolute error in percentage

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 Static Characteristics
Precision
• It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements.
• It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.
• Measuring device is used to measure the same input at different instances, the
output may not be same.
• It refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
• Precise means clearly or sharply defined.
• The deviation from the nominal output in absolute units or fraction of full scale
is called the precision error or repeatability error.
• The input is varied from zero to full scale value and repeatability at different
input values are calculated. The maximum of these will give the repeatability
error of the instrument.

It is composed of two characteristics;

1. Conformity
2. Number of significant figures

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 Static Characteristics

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 Example on Accuracy and Precision

Measurement taken by a voltmeter for (100V) are 104, 103, 105, 103, 105

Accuracy 5%
Precision ±1 % since the deviation from the mean reading is ±1V

Ex. An ammeter with wrong zero adjustment. When a measurement is done

using this ammeter it shows precise reading. Readings are consistent but not
accurate. We can improve the accuracy but not the precision of the instrument.

• Uncertainty
Uncertainty denotes the range of error, i.e., the region in which one
guesses the error to be.

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 Static Sensitivity

• Static sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude of the output

signal or response to the magnitude of the input signal or the quantity being
measured.
• Static sensitivity of a instrument can be defined as the slope of the static
calibration curve.
• If the calibration curve is not a straight line then the sensitivity will vary with
input value.
• The sensitivity should be taken depending on the operating point.
• The sensitivity is expressed in output unit/ input unit.

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 Static Sensitivity

Static sensitivity of a instrument to the desired input is important, the sensitivity

to other inputs namely interfering and modifying inputs are also necessary to
select instrument for a particular application.

Question : A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7 in the unknown arm of

the bridge to produce a change in deflection of 3mm of the galvanometer.
Determine the sensitivity

Answer: 0.429mm/ 

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 Static Sensitivity

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 Linearity

Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted instrument

response from a specified straight line. To specify or to select a straight line for a
plotted calibration curve there are a number of ways.

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 Linearity

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 Linearity

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 Linearity

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 Linearity

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 Linearity

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 Threshold

• When the input to a instrument is increased from zero, there is a minimum

value below which no output can be detected.
• This minimum value of the input is defined as the threshold of the
instrument.
• Threshold depends on the output sensing device and the observer.
• Definite numerical value for output change and find the corresponding input
change.
• The input change can be called the threshold.

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 Threshold

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 Resolution

• When the input to a instrument is increased slowly from some non zero
arbitrary value, the change in output is not detected at all until a certain input
increment is exceeded.
• This increment is defined as the resolution.
• It is desirable to define resolution as the input increment that gives a small but
definite numerical change in output.
• Threshold defines the smallest measurable input at the beginning
• The resolution defines the smallest measurable input change.

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 Hysteresis effect

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• Range
The difference between the largest and the smallest reading of the
instrument is called the "Range of an instrument". The range is expressed by
stating the lower and upper values.
The region between the limits within which an instrument is designed to
operate for measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is called the
"range of the instrument".
eg. 0-5A, 50-100V
• Scale Span.
The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values is
called the span.

0-5A range, span is 5A

50-100V range, span is 50V

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 Input Impedance and loading effect

• An instrument used in any measurement normally extracts some energy from the
measuring medium and thereby disturbs the value of the measured quantity.

• This property is known as the loading effect.

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 Input Impedance and loading effect

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 loading effect of Mechanical system

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 Static Characteristics
• Speed of response
The quickness of an instrument to read the measured variable is called "speed of
response".

• Repeatability
The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the
same variable (value) under the same operating conditions, approaching in the same
direction.

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• Reproducibility

The degree of closeness with which the same value of a variable may be
measured at different times is called "reproducibility".

The precision of a measurement system refers to how close the agreement

is between repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same
conditions).
Reproducibility — The variation arising using the same measurement process
among different instruments and operators, and over longer time periods.

• Drift
An undesirable gradual departure of the instrument over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input, operating conditions or lead is called drift.

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 • Dead zone
It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no
output of the instrument.
Eg. The input applied to the instrument may not be sufficient to overcome the
friction and the pointer will not move. It will move only when the driving force
overcomes the frictional force.

Question. The dead zone in a certain pyrometer is 0.125% of span. The calibration is
400o to 1000oC. What temperature change might occur before it is detected.
Answer: Span =600oC
Dead zone=(0.125/100)*600=0.75oC
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 • Dead time
It is the time after which the instrument begins to respond, after the
measured quantity has been changed

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 Static Characteristics

• Tolerance
It is the range of inaccuracy which can be tolerated in measurements.
• Backlash
It is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of a
mechanical system may be moved in one direction without applying appreciable
force or motion to the next part in a mechanical system.
• Stiction (static friction)
It is the force or torque that is necessary just to initiate motion from rest.
• Noise
It may be defined as extraneous disturbance generated in a measuring system which
conveys no meaningful information w.r.t. desired signal.

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 Static Error

• A quantity can never be measured with perfect accuracy in practice. So it is

necessary to know about the errors in measurement.
• Numerical differences between true value of a quantity and its value obtained
by measurement.

Static errors are generally of three types;

1. Gross error (human mistakes)

2. Systematic errors (instrumental or environmental errors)

3. Random or accidental errors (unknown)

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 Gross Error
Gross errors mainly includes human mistakes in reading, recording and calculating
measurement results.

• Misreading of values
• Incorrect adjustment
• Improper selection of Instruments
• Computational errors
Reason:

• Carelessness of the observer.

• Failure to set zero before measurement made.
• Failure to note the reading corresponding to the selected range.
• Improper positioning of the instrument.

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 Gross Error
Complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible in analog meters.

Solution
1. Great Care to be taken in reading, recording and calculating the data
2. Two or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under
measurement and taken by different person.
3. Auto ranging digital meters.

Example: ( improper selection)

• When a voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across two points in
a circuit, the input impedance of the voltmeter chosen should be at least 10 times
greater than the output impedance of the measuring circuit.
• As the output impedance of a circuit is normally not known before hand, the
selection of the voltmeter may not be made correctly, leading gross error.
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 Gross Error
Example 1:

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 Gross Error
Example 1: solution

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 Systematic Error
1. Instrumental error
2. Environmental error
3. Observational error
1. Instrumental error: Due to three main reasons

(i) Inherent shortcomings of the instrument

(ii) Due to misuse of the instrument
(iii) Due to loading effect of the instrument

(i) Inherent shortcomings of the instrument

Errors inherent in the instrument due to their mechanical structure. These may be due
to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring device.
eg. Springs used for providing the controlling torque of a PMMC instrument may
become weak resulting in a higher reading by the instrument
Elimination:
By calibration

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 Systematic Error

(ii) Due to misuse of the instrument

Failure to adjust the zero error of the instrument

(iii) Loading effect

Improper use of instrument for measurement purpose

A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when

connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter when connected
across a low resistance circuit will give a more dependable reading. That is, the
voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit altering the actual circuit conditions
by the measurement process.

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Question : A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000/V reads 100V on its 150V
scale when connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter.
When the milliammeter reads 5mA Calculate the apparent resistance of the unknown
resistor, actual resistance of the unknown resistor and the error due to loading effect
of voltmeter

Apparent Resistance RA= 100/(5x10-3)=20k

Resistance of Voltmeter =150x1000=150k
As the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we have
RA= RxRv/(Rv+Rx)

From this
Rx=RARV/RV-RA = 23.07k
%error= (20-23.07/23.07 )x100= 13.3%

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Question : A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000/V reads 100V on its 150V
scale when connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter.
When the milliammeter reads 5mA Calculate the apparent resistance of the
unknown resistor, actual resistance of the unknown resistor and the error due to
loading effect of voltmeter

Repeat the same example if milliammeter reads 800mA and the Voltmeter reads 40V on its
150V scale.
RA=40/(800x10-3)= 50
Rv=1000x150=150k
Rx= 50.017, % error= -0.034%

Error caused by loading effect of the meter can be reduced by using them
intelligently.
When measuring a low resistance by ammeter voltmeter method, we have to use a
high resistance voltmeter

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 Systematic Error

2. Environmental errors
Changes in the environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity,
pressure, dust, vibration and electric and magnetic fields.
Corrective Measures to eliminate or reduce these undesirable effects

1. Minimized by controlling the environmental conditions in the laboratory.

Temperature can be kept constant by keeping the equipment in a

temperature- controlled enclosure.

2. Using equipment which are immune to these effects

Variation in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using

resistance materials which have a very low temperature coefficient of
resistance

3. Employ techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances

The effect of humidity, dust can be eliminated by sealing the equipment.

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Apply corrections 74
 Systematic Error
Static errors

• Caused by the limitations of the measuring device or the assumption in the

physical laws governing its behavior.
• Definite magnitude and direction

Dynamic errors

• Caused by the instruments slow response in following the changes in the

measured variable.

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 Systematic Error

3. Observational Errors

• Parallax error will be present unless the line of vision of the observer is
exactly above the pointer. To minimize the parallax error meters with
mirrored scale are provided
• When the image of the pointer is hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is
directly in line with the pointer
• Pointer resting slightly above the surface of the sphere
• Parallax error can be avoided by having the pointer and the scale in the
same plane.

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 Random Error

• Random errors are unpredictable errors and occur even when all the systematic
errors are accounted for.
• It will be found that the readings vary slightly over a period of observation.
• Errors can be reduced by taking more number of readings and using statistical
methods to obtain the best approximation of the true value.

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 Error Analysis

• Analysis of the measurement data is necessary to obtain the probable true value of the
measured quantity.

• Any measurement is associated with a certain amount of uncertainty.

• The systematic way of specifying this uncertainty is the statistical method.

• A large number of measurements is usually required to make statistical methods and

interpretations meaningful.

Statistical methods use terms

• Arithmetic mean
• Deviation
• Standard deviation
• Variance

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 Measurement Terms
• True or actual value
The actual magnitude of a signal input to a measuring system which can
only be approached and never evaluated is termed as "true or actual value".
(It can be thought of as the average of an infinite number of measured values when
the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero).

• Indicated value
It is the magnitude of a variable indicated by a measuring instrument.
• Correction
The revision applied to the critical value so that the final result obtained
improves the result is called "correction".

• Overall error
It is the difference between the scale reading and the true value.

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 Static Error

Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true
value.

A= Am-At
A -absolute static error

Relative static error = absolute static error/true value

r= A/At

Percentage static error=r*100

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 Static calibration

Static calibration

• A process by which all the static performance characteristics are obtained in one
form or another.
• In general, static calibration refers to a situation in which all inputs, whether
desirable, interfering or modifying except one, are kept at some constant values.
• Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant values,
which causes the output (s) to vary over some range of constant values.
• Thus an output-input relationship is developed which comprise a static calibration
valid under the stated constant conditions of all the other inputs.

The procedure of calibration involves a comparison of a particular instrument with

either :
• primary standard.
• secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated, or
• an instrument of known accuracy.

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 Error calibration curve

• It is an error curve which can be used for correcting instrument readings. The
curve is plotted by calibrating the instrument against a suitable standard at a
number of points on the scale.

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 Problems –Module 1

Example 1. A voltmeter reads 112.68 V. If the true value of the voltage is 112.6 V, determine
the following :
(i) The static error.
(ii) The static correction for the voltmeter.

Solution. Given :
Vm = 112.68 volts;
Vt = 112.6 volts.
(0 Static error, Es :

Es = Vm - Vt = 112.68 - 112.6 = +0.08 V (Ans.)

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 Error Analysis

• Analysis of the measurement data is necessary to obtain the probable true value of the
measured quantity.

• Any measurement is associated with a certain amount of uncertainty.

• The systematic way of specifying this uncertainty is the statistical method.

• A large number of measurements is usually required to make statistical methods and

interpretations meaningful.

Statistical methods use terms

• Arithmetic mean
• Deviation
• Standard deviation
• Variance

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 Arithmetic mean

• The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of
readings taken.
• Arithmetic mean is defined as the average value of the readings .

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 Deviation
• Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of a group of
readings. For a reading X1, the deviation is given by

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 Deviation

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 Standard deviation
• Another deviation which is commonly used in statistical analysis is standard deviation
which is defined as

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 Variance

• variance is another term which is sometimes used in statistical analysis. This is the square
of the standard deviation and is given by

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 Variance

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 Problems

• Example 3

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 Problems

• Example 3 Solution

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 Median

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 Mode

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 Probability of errors

• By the very nature of the random errors, the uncertainty associated with any measurement
cannot be predetermined.
• Only the probable error can be specified using statistical error analysis.

• Normal distribution of errors

• Probable error
• Limiting error
• Odds in specification
• Propagation of error

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 Normal distribution of errors
• The measurement data can be pictorially represented by a histogram for a better visual
appeal and quick understanding of information

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 Normal distribution of errors

• Histogram is bar graph display of the number of occurrences of a particular observed value
in a measurement.

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 Gaussian Curve
• If a precise method is used for measurement , the Gaussian curve will be sharper (A) and
the curve will be flattened when a crude method is used (B) .

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 Probable error

• It is quite often useful to specify the probable error in a measurement due to random error.
• If the central value of a Gaussian curve is assumed as the true value, then error Vs number
of occurrences in the measurement can be plotted.

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 Probable error

• For Gaussian distribution of data, it is found that about 68% of the total number of
observations have errors lying within ± σ.
• It is also found that about 50 % of the total number of observations have errors lying
within ±0.6745 σ and this is taken as the probable value of error because there is an even
chance for any one observation to have a random error more than this value. Hence
probable error , r ±0.6745 σ .

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 Limiting error

• The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its design , the material used
and workmanship that goes into making the instrument.
• The accuracy of a measuring instrument is usually specified by its manufacturer as a
percentage of the full scale reading.
• However, the percentage error for various values of readings taken will be more than the
percentage specified.

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 Limiting error

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 Combination of Quantities with Limiting error

• When two or more quantities , each having limiting error are combined, it is advantageous
to be able to compute the limiting error of the combination.
• The limiting error can be easily found by considering the relative increment of the function
if the final result is in the form of an algebraic equation.

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 Combination of Quantities with Limiting error

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 Combination of Quantities with Limiting error

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 DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM SYSTEMATIC ERROR

When two or more quantities, each of which is subject to error are combined, it is
necessary to determine the maximum systematic error.
Provided that the errors are small their effect on the final result is readily
obtained from the simple rules outlined below.

(i) Sum of two or more quantities

Let the final result y be the sum of measured quantities u,v,z

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 Combination of Quantities with Limiting error

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 Combination of Quantities with Limiting error

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 Odds in specification
• The specification of limiting error is in itself uncertain because the manufacturer himself is
not sure about the accuracy because of the presence of random errors.
• To add a further specification of the uncertainty in a measurement Klins and McClintoch
have proposed to specify certain odds for the uncertainty.
• For example the temperature reading may be expressed as

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 Odds in specification

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 Problems

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 Problems
• Example 1 Solution

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 Problems
• Example 2

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• Example 2 solution Problems

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• Example 2 solution Problems

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• Example 3 Problems

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• Example 3 solution Problems

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• Example 4 Problems

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• Example 4 solution Problems

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 Problems

• Example 5

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 Problems

• Example 5 solution

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 Problems

• Example 6

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 Problems
• Example 6 solution

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 Problems
• Example 7 solution

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 Standard
• A standard is a known accurate measure of physical quantity.
• Standards are used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the
comparison method.
• All standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures
(BIMP), Paris.
• Four categories of standard:
– International Standard
– Primary Standard ( National Standard Laboratories preserve a group of
primary standards)
– Secondary Standard
– Working Standard

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 Standard

• International Standard

– Defined by International Agreement

– Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the current science
and technology

• Primary Standard

– Maintained at the National Standard Lab (different for every country)

– Function: the calibration and verification of secondary standard
– Each lab has its own secondary standard which are periodically checked
and certified by the National Std Lab.

• Working Standard
– Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and performance.

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