Sub model unit 4

SETTING OUT WORKS

By the end of the sub-unit the trainee should be able to:
1) Describe setting out tools and equipments
2) Explain procedures of setting out buildings
3) Describe tools for ensuring vertically of buildings
CONTENT
 Tools and equipments
 Procedures of setting out
 Tools and equipments for vertical alignment

INTRODUCTION TO SETTING OUT WORKS

In engineering the production of an accurate large-scale plan is usually the first step in the
planning and design of a construction project. Thereafter the project, as designed on the plan,
must be set out on the ground in the correct absolute and relative position and to its correct
dimensions. Thus, surveys made in connection with a specific project should be planned with the
setting-out process in mind and a system of three-dimensional control stations conveniently sited
and adequate in number should be provided to facilitate easy, economical setting out.
It is the reverse of surveying in that;
 Whereas surveying is a process for forming maps and plans of a particular site or area,
setting out begins with plans and ends with the various elements of a particular plan
correctly positioned on site.
However most techniques and equipment used in surveying are also used in setting out i.e. while
surveying may be the opposite of setting out, the processes and instruments are almost identical.

RESPONSIBILITY ON SITE
The contractor shall be responsible for the true and proper setting out of the works, and for the
correctness of the position, levels, dimensions, and alignment of all parts of the works, and for
the provision of all necessary instruments, appliances, and labor in connection therewith.
If, at any time during the progress of the works, any error shall appear or arise in the position,
levels, dimensions, or alignment of any part of the works, the contractor, on being required so to
do by the engineer, shall, at his own cost, rectify such error to the satisfaction of the engineer,
unless such error is based on incorrect data supplied in writing by the engineer or the engineer’s
representative, in which case the cost of rectifying the same shall be borne by the employer.
The checking of any setting out, or of any line or level, by the engineer or the engineer’s
representative, shall not, in any way, relieve the contractor of his responsibility for the
correctness thereof, and the contractor shall carefully protect and preserve all bench-marks, sight
rails, pegs, and other things used in setting out the works.
The persons involved in the process are the employer, the engineer and the agent, whose roles
are as follows:
The employer, who may be a government department, local authority or private individual,
requires to carry out and finance a particular project.
To this end, he/she commissions an engineer to investigate and design the project, and to take
responsibility for the initial site investigation, surveys, plans, designs, working drawings, and
setting-out data. On satisfactory completion of the engineer’s work the employer lets the contract
to a contractor whose duty it is to carry out the work.
On site the employer is represented by the engineer or their representative, referred to as the
resident engineer (RE), and the contractor’s representative is called the agent.
The engineer has overall responsibility for the project and must protect the employer’s interest
without bias to the contractor; however the engineer is not a party to the contract which is
between the client and the contractor.
The agent is responsible for the actual construction of the project.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SETTING-OUT ENGINEER

The setting-out engineer should establish such a system of work on site that will ensure the
accurate setting out of the works well in advance of the commencement of construction. To
achieve this, the following factors should be considered.
I. A complete and thorough understanding of the plans, working drawings, setting-out data,
tolerances involved and the time scale of operations. Checks on the setting-out data supplied
should be immediately implemented.
II. A complete and thorough knowledge of the site, plant and relevant personnel.
Communications between all individuals is vitally important. Field checks on the survey
control already established on site, possibly by contract surveyors, should be carried out at the
first opportunity.
III. A complete and thorough knowledge of the survey instrumentation available on site,
including the effect of instrumental errors on setting-out observations. At the first opportunity,
a base should be established for the calibration of tapes, EDM equipment, levels and
theodolites.
IV. A complete and thorough knowledge of the stores available, to ensure an adequate and
continuing supply of pegs, pins, chalk, string, paint, timber, etc.
V. Office procedure should be so organized as to ensure easy access to all necessary
information. Plans should be stored flat in plan drawers, and those amended or superseded
 should be withdrawn from use and stored elsewhere. Field and level books should be carefully
referenced and properly filed. All setting-out computations and procedures used should be
clearly presented, referenced and filed.
VI. Wherever possible, independent checks of the computation, abstraction and extrapolation
of setting-out data and of the actual setting-out procedures should be made.
It can be seen from this brief list of the requirements of a setting-out engineer, that such work
should never be allocated, without complete supervision, to junior, inexperienced members of
the site team.
All site engineers should also make a careful study of the following British Standards, which
were prepared under the direction of the Basic Data and Performance Criteria for Civil
Engineering and Building Structures Standards Policy Committee:
(1) BS 5964-1:1990 (ISO 4463–1, 1989) Building setting out and measurement. Part 1. Methods
of measuring, planning and organization and acceptance criteria.
(2) BS 5964-3:1996 (ISO 4463–3, 1995) Building setting out and measurement. Part 3.
Checklists for the procurement of surveys and measurement services.
(3) BS 5606:1990 Guide to Accuracy in Building.
(4) BS 7307:1990 (ISO 7976:1989) Building tolerances. Measurement of buildings and building
products. Part 1. Methods and instruments. Part 2. Position of measuring points.
(5) BS 7308:1990 (ISO 7737:1986) Method for presentation of dimensional accuracy data in
building construction.
(6) BS 7334:1990 (ISO 8322:1989) Measuring instruments for building construction. Methods
for determining accuracy in use: Part 1 theory, Part 2 measuring tapes, Part 3 optical levelling
instruments, Part 4 theodolites, Part 5 optical plumbing instruments, Part 6 laser instruments,
Part 7 instruments when used for setting out, Part 8 electronic distance-measuring instruments
up to 150 m.
ISO-Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of
the elements for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them.
But simply it is the process of using the surveying instrument and techniques in survey practice
to transfer information from a plan to the ground.
This process may be contrasted with the purpose of surveying which is to determine by
measurement the position of existing features.
Purpose of setting out (SO)
The main aim of setting out is to ensure that the various elements of the scheme are positioned
correctly in all three dimensions.
Other aims of SO
 The various elements of the scheme must be correct in all three dimensions both
relatively and absolutely, that is each must be its correct size, in its correct plan position
and correct reduced level.
 Once setting out begins it must proceed quickly with little or no delay in order that the
works can proceed smoothly and the cost can be minimized. It must always be
remembered that the contractors main commercial purpose is to make a profit – therefore
setting out needs to be done efficiently and any errors of SO the contractor is responsible.
In practice, there are many techniques which can be used to achieve these aims. However, they
are all based on three general principles.
I. Points of known E, N coordinates must be established within or near the site from which
the design points can be set out in their correct plan positions. This involves horizontal control
techniques.
II. Points of known elevation relative to an agreed datum are required within or near the site
from which the design points can be set out at their correct reduced levels. This involves vertical
control techniques.
III. Accurate methods must be adopted to establish design points from this horizontal and
vertical control. This involves positioning techniques
In addition, the chances of achieving the aims and minimizing errors will be greatly increased if
the setting-out operations are planned well in advance. This requires a careful study of the
drawings for the project and the formulation of a set of good working.
Setting out data
 Levels (invert or raised structures)
 Positions (x, z) on the ground
 Angles
 Centre lines
 Base lines

PROTECTION AND REFERENCING

Most site operatives have little concept of the time, effort and expertise involved in establishing
setting-out pegs. For this reason the pegs are frequently treated with disdain and casually
destroyed in the construction process. A typical example of this is the centre-line pegs for route
location which are the first to be destroyed when earth-moving commences. It is important,
therefore, that control stations and BMs should be protected in some way (usually as shown in
Figure 1) and site operatives, particularly earthwork personnel, impressed with the importance of
maintaining this protection. Where destruction of the pegs is inevitable, then referencing
procedures should be adopted to relocate their positions to the original accuracy of fixation.
Various configurations of reference pegs are used and the one thing that they have in common is
that they must be set well outside the area of construction and have some form of protection, as
in Figure 1. A commonly-used method of referencing is from four pegs (A, B,C, D) established
such that two strings stretched between them intersect to locate the required position (Figure 2).
Distances AB, BC, CD, AD, AC, BD should all be measured as checks on the possible
movement of the reference pegs, whilst distances from the reference pegs to the setting-out peg
will afford a check on positioning. Ideally TP1 should be in line with DB and AC. Intersecting
lines of sight from theodolites at, say, A and B may be used where ground conditions make
string lining difficult.
Although easy to construct, wooden pegs are easily damaged. A more stable and precise control
station mark that is easily constructed on site is shown in Figure 3. A steel or brass plate with
fine but deeply engraved lines crossing at right angles is set with Hilti nails into a cube of
concrete cast into a freshly dug hole. To avoid any possible movement of the plate there should
be a layer of epoxy resin between it and the concrete. Fig. 3

STAGES IN SETTING
Out As the Works proceed, the setting out falls into two broad stages. Initially, techniques are
required to define the site, to set out the foundations and to monitor their construction. Once this
has been done, emphasis changes to the above-ground elements of the scheme and methods must
be adopted which will ensure that they are fixed at their correct levels and positions. These two
stages are discussed below but the division between the two is not easily defined and a certain
amount of overlap is inevitable.
a. First Stage Setting Out
The first stage when setting out any scheme is to locate the boundaries of the Works in their
correct position on the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to do this,
horizontal and vertical control points must be established on or near to the site. These are then
used not only to define the perimeter of the site which enables fences to be erected and site
clearance to begin but also to set out critical design points on the scheme and to define slopes,
directions and so on. For example, in a structural project, the main corners and sides of the
buildings will be located and the required depths of dig to foundation level will be defined. In a
road project, the centre line and the extent of the embankments and cuttings will be established
together with their required slopes. When the boundaries and major elements have been pegged
out, the top soil is stripped and excavation work begins. During this period, it may be necessary
to relocate any pegs that are accidentally disturbed by the site plant and equipment. Once the
formation level is reached, the foundations are laid in accordance with the drawings and the
critical design points located earlier. Setting-out techniques are used to check that the
foundations are in their correct three-dimensional position. The first stage ends once construction
to ground floor level, sub-base level or similar has been completed.
b. Second Stage Setting out
This continues on from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab, road sub-base level or
similar. Up to this point, all the control will still be outside the main construction, for example,
the pegs defining building corners, centre lines and so on will have been knocked out during the
earthmoving work and only the original control will be undisturbed. Some offset pegs may
remain but these too will be set back from the actual construction itself. The purpose of second
stage setting out, therefore, is to transfer the horizontal and vertical control used in the first stage
into the actual construction in order that it can be used to establish the various elements of the
scheme.
Methods of Horizontal Control
In order that the design points of the scheme can be correctly fixed in plan position, it is
necessary to establish points on site for which the E, N coordinates are known. These are
horizontal control points and, once they have been located, they can be used with one of the
methods of setting out to set out the design points.
In general terms, the process of establishing horizontal control is one of working from the whole
to the part. This involves starting with a small number of very accurately measured control points
(first level) which enclose the area in question and using these to set out a second level of control
points near the site. This second level can then be used either to set out the design points of the
scheme and/or to establish a third level of control points, as necessary.
The process is one of extending control throughout the site until all the design points have been
fixed. Inevitably, the accuracy of the control will decrease slightly as each new level is
established and great care must be taken to ensure that the tolerances stated in the contract
specifications are met.
Methods of Vertical Control
In order that design points on the Works can be positioned at their correct levels, vertical control
points of known elevation relative to some specified datum must be established on the site. In
Great Britain, a datum commonly used is ordnance datum and all the levels on a site will
normally be reduced to a nearby ordnance bench mark (OBM). The actual OBM used will be
agreed in writing between the Engineer and the Contractor. The bench mark chosen is known as
the master bench mark (MBM) and it is used for two main purposes. First, to establish points of
known reduced level near to and on the elements of the proposed scheme. These are known as
transferred bench marks (TBMs). Although TBMs are often located in new positions on the
scheme, any existing horizontal control stations can be used as TBMs providing that they have
been permanently marked. Second, if there are other OBMs nearby, their reduced levels are
checked with reference to the MBM and in the case of any discrepancy, their amended values are
used. This ensures that the overall vertical control remains with the MBM. Once they have been
established, the vertical control points are used to define reference planes in space, parallel to
and usually offset from selected planes of the proposed construction. These planes may be
horizontal, for example, a floor level inside a building, or inclined, for example, an embankment
slope in earthwork construction. As with horizontal control, it is essential that the principle of
working from the whole to the part is adopted. In practice this means ensuring that all vertical
design points are set out either from the MBM or from a nearby TBM, and not from another
vertical design point which has been established earlier. This prevents an error in the reduced
level of one design point being carried forward into that of another
BASIC SETTING-OUT PROCEDURES USING COORDINATES
Plans are generally produced on a plane rectangular coordinate system, and hence salient points
of the design may also be defined in terms of rectangular coordinates on the same system. For
instance, the centerline of a proposed road may be defined in terms of coordinates at, say, 20-m
intervals, or alternatively, only the tangent and intersection points may be so defined. The basic
methods of locating position when using coordinates are either by polar coordinates or by
intersection.
A. By polar coordinates
In Figure below A, B and C are control stations whose coordinates are known. It is required to
locate point IP whose design coordinates are also known.
The computation involved is as follows:
(1) From coordinates compute the bearing BA (this bearing may already be known from the
initial control survey computations).
(2) From coordinates compute the horizontal length and bearing of B − IP.
(3) From the two bearings compute the setting-out angle AB (IP), i.e. β.
(4) Before proceeding into the field, draw a neat sketch of the situation showing all the setting-
out data. Check the data from the plan or by independent computation.
Alternatively the coordinate geometry functions in a total station can be used to avoid most of
the computations.
The field work involved is as follows:
1. Set up theodolite at B and backsight to A, note the horizontal circle reading.
 2. Add the angle β to the circle reading BA to obtain the circle reading B − IP. Set this
reading on the theodolite to establish direction B − IP and measure out the horizontal distance L.
If this distance is set out by steel tape, careful consideration must be given to all the error sources
such as standardization, slope, tension and possibly temperature if the setting-out tolerances are
very small. It should also be carefully noted that the sign of the correction is reversed from that
applied when measuring a distance.
For example, if a 20 m tape was in fact 20.01 m long, when measuring a distance the recorded
length would be 20 m for a single tape length, although the actual distance is 20.01 m; hence a
positive correction of 10 mm is applied to the recorded measurement. However, if it is required
to set out 20 m, the actual distance set out would be 20.01 m; thus this length would need to be
reduced by 10 mm, i.e. a negative correction.

The best field technique when using a steel tape is carefully to align pegs at X and Y each side of
the expected position of IP. Now carefully measure the distance BX and subtract it from the
known distance to obtain distance X − IP, which will be very small, possibly less than one meter.
Stretch a fine cord between X and Y and measure X − IP along this direction to fix point IP. A
total station may be used to display horizontal distance, so the length B − IP may be ranged
direct to a reflector fixed to a setting-out pole.
 B. By intersection
This technique, illustrated in the figure below, does not require linear measurement; hence,
adverse ground conditions are immaterial and one does not have to consider tape corrections.
The technique is applicable if a total station is not available or if its batteries are flat.

The computation involved is as follows:

(1) From the coordinates of A, B and IP compute the bearings AB, A − IP and B − IP.
(2) From the bearings compute the angles α and β.
The relevant field work, assuming two theodolites are available, is as follows:
(1) Set up a theodolite at A, backsight to B and turn off the angle α.
(2) Set up a theodolite at B, backsight to A and turn off the angle β.
The intersection of the sight lines A − IP and B − IP locates the position of IP. The angle δ is
measured as a check on the setting out.
If only one theodolite is available then two pegs per sight line are established, as in the figure
below and then string lines connecting each opposite pair of pegs locate position IP, as figure 2
above.
USE OF GRIDS
Many structures in civil engineering consist of steel or reinforced concrete columns supporting
floor slabs. As the disposition of these columns is inevitably that they are at right angles to each
other, the use of a grid, where the grid intersections define the position of the columns, greatly
facilitates setting out. It is possible to define several grids as follows:
(1) Survey grid: the rectangular coordinate system on which the original topographic survey is
carried out and plotted.

(2) Site grid: defines the position and direction of the main building lines of the project. The best
position for such a grid can be determined by simply moving a tracing of the site grid over the
original plan so that its best position can be located in relation to the orientation of the major
units designed thereon.
In order to set out the site grid, it may be convenient to translate the coordinates of the site grid
to those of the survey grid using the well-known transformation formula:
E = ΔE + E1 cos θ − N1 sin θ
N = ΔN + N1 cos θ + E1 sin θ
Where ΔE, ΔN = difference in easting and northing of the respective grid origins
E1, N1 = the coordinates of the point on the site grid
θ = relative rotation of the two grids
E, N = the coordinates of the point transformed to the survey grid
Thus, selected points, say X and Y may have their site-grid coordinate values transformed to that
of the survey grid and so set-out by polars or intersection from the survey control. Now, using
XY as a baseline, the site grid may be set out using theodolite and steel tape, all angles being
turned off on both faces and grid intervals carefully fixed using the steel tape under standard
tension. When the site grid has been established, each line of the grid should be carefully
referenced to marks fixed clear of the area of work. As an added precaution, these marks could
be further referenced to existing control or permanent, stable, on-site detail.

(3) Structural grid: used to locate the position of the structural elements within the structure
and is physically established usually on the concrete floor slab. It may be used where the relative
positions of points are much more important than the absolute positions, such as for the holding
down bolts of a steel frame structure. The advantages of such a grid are that the lines of sight are
set out in a regular pattern and so can be checked by eye even for small errors and that there is
more check on points set out from the grid than if those points were set out individually by
bearing and distance or by coordinates from a total station.
SETTING OUT BUILDINGS
For buildings with normal strip foundations the corners of the external walls are established by
pegs located directly from the survey control or by measurement from the site grid. As these
pegs would be disturbed in the initial excavations their positions are transferred by total station
on to profile boards set well clear of the area of disturbance.
Prior to this their positions must be checked by measuring the diagonals. The profile boards must
be set horizontal with their top edge at some predetermined level such as damp proof course
(DPC) or finished floor level (FFL).Wall widths, foundation widths, etc., can be set out along the
board with the aid of a steel tape and their positions defined by sawcuts. They are arranged
around the building. Strings stretched between the appropriate marks clearly define the line of
construction.

In the case of buildings constructed with steel or concrete columns, a structural grid must be
established to an accuracy of about ±2 to 3 mm or the prefabricated beams and steelwork will not
fit together without some distortion.
The position of the concrete floor slab may be established in a manner already described.
Thereafter the structural grid is physically established by Hilti nails or small steel plates set into
the concrete. Due to the accuracy required a 1’’ theodolite and standardized steel tape corrected
for temperature and tension may be preferable to a total station.
Once the bases for the steel columns have been established, the axes defining the centre of each
column should be marked on and, using a template orientated to these axes, the positions of the
holding-down bolts defined (Figure shown below). A height mark should be established, using a
level, at a set distance (say, 75 mm) below the underside of the base-plate, and this should be
constant throughout the structure. It is important that the base-plate starts from a horizontal base
to ensure verticality of the column.
SETTING OUT A BUILDING TO GROUND-FLOOR LEVEL
This also comes into the category of first stage setting out. It is vital to remember when setting
out that, since dimensions, whether scaled or designed, are almost always horizontal, slope must
be allowed for in surface taping on sloping ground. The slope correction is additive when setting
out.
1) Two corners of the building are set out from the baseline, site grid or traverse stations using
one of the methods already discussed.
2) From these two corners, the sides are set out using a theodolite to turn off right angles as
shown in figure 14.37. The exact positions of each corner are then marked in the top of wooden
pegs by nails and offset pegs are established at the same time as the corner pegs
3) The diagonals are checked as shown in figure 14.38 and the nails repositioned on the tops of
the pegs as necessary.
4) Profile boards are erected at each corner or a continuous profile is used (see figures 14.19,
14.20 and 14.21) and excavation begins. The next step is to construct the foundations; these can
take several forms but for the purposes of the remainder of the chapter it will be assumed that
concrete foundations have been used and a concrete ground floor slab laid. This would have
required formwork to contain the wet concrete and this could have been set out by aligning the
shuttering with string lines strung between the profiles.
Transfer of Control to Ground-floor Slab
This is done for horizontal control by setting a theodolite and target over opposite pairs of offset
pegs as shown in figure 14.39 and for vertical control as shown in figure 14.40.
Setting out Formwork
The points required for formwork can be set out with reference to the control plates by marking
the lines between these plates as shown in figure 14.41. One method of marking these lines on
the slab is by means of chalked string held taut and fixed at each comer position. The string is
pulled vertically away from the slab and released. It hits the surface of the slab, marking it with
the chalk

Setting out Column Positions

Where columns are used, they can be set out with the aid of a structural grid Column centres
should be positioned to within: ±: 2 to 5 mm of their design position. The structural grid enables
this to be achieved. Figure 14.43 shows a structural grid of wooden pegs set out to coincide with
the lines of columns. The pegs can either be level with the ground floor slab or profile boards can
be used.

Lines are strung across the slab between the pegs or profiles to define the column centres. If the
pegs are at slab level the column positions are marked directly. If profiles are used, a theodolite
can be used to transfer the lines to the slab surface. The intersections of the lines define the
column centres. Once the centres are marked, the bolt positions for steel columns can be
accurately established with a template, equal in size to the column base, placed exactly at the
marked point. For reinforced concrete columns, the centres are established in exactly the same
way but usually prior to the slab being laid so that the reinforcing starter bars can be placed in
position.

Transferring Height from Floor to Floor

Height can be transferred by means of a weighted steel tape measuring each time from a datum
in the base of the structure as shown in figure 14.56. The base datum levels should be set in the
bottom of lift wells, service ducts and so on, such that an unrestricted taping line to roof level is
provided. Each floor is then provided with TBMs in key positions from which normal levelling
methods can be used to transfer levels on each floor. Alternatively, if there are cast-in-situ stairs
present, a level and staff can be used to level up and down the stairs as shown in figure 14.57.
Note that both up and down levelling must be done as a check.
CONTROLLING VERTICALITY
One of the most important setting out operations is to ensure that those elements of the scheme
which are designed to be vertical are actually constructed to be so and there are a number of
techniques available by which this can be achieved. Several are discussed in this section and
particular emphasis is placed on the control of verticality in multi-storey structures. In order to
avoid repeating information given earlier in this chapter, the following assumptions have been
made:
(i) Offset pegs have been established to enable the sides of the building to be re-located as
necessary.
(ii) The structure being controlled has already had its ground floor slab constructed and the
horizontal control lines have already been transferred to it as shown in figure 14.39.The principle
behind verticality control is very straightforward: if the horizontal control on the ground floor
slab can be accurately transferred to each higher floor as construction proceeds, then verticality
will be maintained
Depending on the heights involved, there are several different ways of achieving verticality. For
single-storey structures, long spirit levels can be used quite effectively as shown in the figure
below.

For multi-storey structures, however, one of the following techniques is preferable:

i. Plumb-bob methods
ii. Theodolite methods
iii. Optical plumbing methods
iv. Laser methods.
The basis behind all these methods is the same. They each provide a means of transferring points
vertically. Once four suitable points have been transferred, they can be used to establish a square
or rectangular grid network on the floor in question which can be used to set out formwork,
column centres, and internal walls and so on at that level.

i. Using a plumb-bob
In low-rise construction a heavy plumb-bob (5 to 10 kg) may be used. If the external wall were
perfectly vertical then, when the plumb-bob coincides with the centre of the peg, distance d at the
top level would equal the offset distance of the peg at the base. This concept can be used
internally as well as externally, provided that holes and openings are available. The plumb-bob
should be large, say 5 kg, and both plumb-bob and wire need to be protected from wind. The
motion of the plumb-bob may need to be damped by immersing the plumb-bob in a drum of
water. The considerations are similar to those of determining verticality in a mine shaft but less
critical. To ensure a direct transfer of position from the bottom to the top floor, holes of about 0.2
m diameter will need to be left in all intermediate floors. This may need the agreement of the
building’s designer.

ii. Using a theodolite

If two centre-lines at right angles to each other are carried vertically up a structure as it is being
built, accurate measurement can be taken off these lines and the structure as a whole will remain
vertical. Where site conditions permit, the stations defining the ‘base figure’ (four per line) are
placed in concrete well clear of construction. Lines stretched between marks fixed from the pegs
will allow offset measurements to locate the base of the structure. As the structure rises the
marks can be transferred up onto the walls by theodolite, and lines stretched between them. It is
important that the transfer is carried out on both faces of the instrument. Where the structure is
circular in plan the centre may be established and the radius swung out from a pipe fixed
vertically at the centre. As the structure rises, the central pipe is extended by adding more
lengths. Its verticality is checked by two theodolites and its rigidity ensured by supports fixed to
scaffolding. The vertical pipe may be replaced by laser beam or auto-plumb, but the laser would
still need to be checked for verticality by theodolites. Steel and concrete columns may also be
checked for verticality using the theodolite. By string lining through the columns, positions A–A
and B–B may be established for the theodolite; alternatively, appropriate offsets from the
structural grid lines may be used. With instrument set up at A, the outside face of all the uprights
should be visible. Now cut the outside edge of the upright at ground level with the vertical hair
of the theodolite. Repeat at the top of the column. Now depress the telescope back to ground
level and make a fine mark; the difference between the mark and the outside edge of the column
is the amount by which the column is out of plumb. Repeat on the opposite face of the theodolite.
The whole procedure is now carried out at B. If the difference exceeds the specified tolerances
the column will need to be corrected.

iii. Using optical plumbing

For high-rise building the instrument most commonly used is an auto-plumb. This instrument
provides a vertical line of sight to an accuracy of ±1 second of arc (1 mm in 200 m). Any
deviation from the vertical can be quantified and corrected by rotating the instrument through
90◦ and observing in all four quadrants; the four marks obtained would give a square, the
diagonals of which would intersect at the correct centre point. A base figure is established at
ground level from which fixing measurements may be taken. If this figure is carried vertically up
the structure as work proceeds, then identical fixing measurements from the figure at all levels
will ensure verticality of the structure. To fix any point of the base figure on an upper floor, a
Perspex target is set over the opening and the centre point fixed as above. Sometimes these
targets have a grid etched on them to facilitate positioning of the marks. The base figure can be
projected as high as the eighth floor, at which stage the finishing trades enter and the openings
are closed. In this case the uppermost figure is carefully referenced, the openings filled, and then
the base figure re-established and projected upwards as before. The shape of the base figure will
depend upon the plan shape of the building. In the case of a long rectangular structure a simple
base line may suffice but T shapes and Y shapes are also used.

CONTROLLING GRADING EXCAVATION

This type of setting out generally occurs in drainage schemes where the trench, bedding material
and pipes have to be laid to a specified design gradient. Manholes (MH) will need to be set out at
every change of direction or at least every 100 m on straight runs. The MH (or inspection
chambers) are generally set out first and the drainage courses set out to connect into them. The
centre peg of the MH is established in the usual way and referenced to four pegs. Alternatively,
profile boards may be set around the MH and its dimensions marked on them. If the boards are
set out at a known height above formation level the depth of excavation can be controlled.
 I. Use of sight rails
Sight rails (SRs) are basically horizontal rails set a specific distance apart and to a specific level
such that a line of sight between them is at the required gradient. Thus they are used to control
trench excavation and pipe gradient without the need for constant professional supervision.
Figure 12.17 illustrates SRs being used in conjunction with a boning rod (or traveller) to control
trench excavation to a design gradient of 0.5% (rising). Pegs A and B are offset a known distance
from the centre-line of the trench and levelled from a nearby TBM. Assume that peg A has a
level of 40 m and the formation level of the trench at this point is to be 38 m. It is decided that a
reasonable height for the SR above ground would be 1.5 m, i.e. at a level of 41.5; thus the boning
rod must be made (41.5 − 38) = 3.5 m long, as its cross-head must be on level with the SR when
its toe is at formation level. Consider now peg B, with a level of 40.8 m at a horizontal distance
of 50 m from A. The proposed gradient is 0.5%, which is 0.25 m in 50 m, and thus the formation
level at B is 38.25 m. If the boning rod is 3.5 m, the SR level at B is (38.25 + 3.5) = 41.75 m and
is set (41.75 − 40.8) = 0.95 m above peg B. The remaining SRs are established in this way and a
line of sight or string stretched between them will establish the trench gradient 3.5 m above the
required level. Thus, holding the boning rod vertically in the trench will indicate, relative to the
sight rails, whether the trench is too high or too low.

Where machine excavation is used, the SRs are as in Figure 12.18, and offset to the side of the
trench opposite to where the excavated soil is deposited. Before setting out the SRs it is
important to liaise with the plant foreman to discover the type of plant to be used, i.e. will the
plant straddle the trench as in Figure 12.18 or will it work from the side of the trench and where
the spoil will be placed to ensure the SRs will be useful. Knowing the bedding thickness, the
invert pipe level, the level of the inside of the bottom of the pipe, may be calculated and a second
cross-head added to the boning rod to control the pipe laying, as shown in Figure 12.19. Due to
excessive ground slopes it may be necessary to use double sight rails with various lengths of
boning rod as shown in Figure 12.20.

II. Use of lasers

The word laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation and
is the name applied to an intense beam of highly monochromatic, coherent light. Because of its
coherence the light can be concentrated into a narrow beam and will not scatter and become
diffused like ordinary light. In controlling trench excavation the laser beam simply replaces the
line of sight or string in the SR situation. It can be set up on the centre-line of the trench, over a
peg of known level, and its height above the peg measured to obtain the reduced level of the
beam. The instrument is then set to the required gradient and used in conjunction with an
extendable traveller set to the same height as that of the laser above formation level. When the
trench is at the correct level, the laser spot will be picked up on the centre of the traveller target,
as shown in Figure 12.21. A levelling staff could just as easily replace the traveller; the laser spot
being picked up on the appropriate staff reading.
Where machine excavation is used the beam can be picked up on a photo-electric cell fixed at the
appropriate height on the machine. The information can be relayed to a console within the cabin,
which informs the operator whether he/she is too high or too low. At the pipe-laying stage, a
target may be fixed in the pipe and the laser installed on the centre-line in the trench. The laser is
then orientated in the correct direction (by bringing it on to a centre-line peg and depressed to the
correct gradient of the pipe. A graduated rod, or appropriately marked ranging pole, can also be
used to control formation and sub-grade level. For large diameter pipes the laser is mounted
inside the pipe using horizontal compression bars. If the laser is knocked off line or off level it
may cease to function, or work intermittently, so indicating that it can no longer be relied on.
Where the MH is constructed, the laser can be orientated from within using the system illustrated
in Figure 12.24. The centre-line direction is transferred down to peg B from peg A and used to
orientate the direction of the laser beam.