Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and
Engineering
Even Term Session 2024-25
IV Semester
23CSE1405: Lab: Introduction to Data
Analysis
PRACTICAL JOURNAL for LAB-2 (PR-1)
SUBMITTED BY
Name: Ganesh Nilkanth Bucche
Section: C
Batch: C-3
Roll No.: 244
Registration Number: 23071339
Signature:
Practic Detail
al s
No.
1 Suppose there are twelve multiple choice questions in an English class quiz. Each
question has five possible answers, and only one of them is correct. Find the
probability of having four or
less correct answers if a student attempts to answer every question at random.
Practical-1
AIM: To demonstrate Binomial distribution using R.
To explore dbinom() and pbinom() functions in R.
RELATED THEORY:
Binomial Distribution:
Defined as a discrete probability distribution, the binomial distribution characterizes the results of n
independent trials within an experiment. Each trial presents two potential outcomes: success or failure.
Assuming the probability of success in a single trial is p, the probability of observing x successful
outcomes in n independent trials can be expressed as follows:
f(x)=(n x)p^x(1-p)^(n-x) where x=0,1,2,…,n
Binomial Formula
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Parameters Of Binomial Distribution:
- Number of Trials (n): This signifies the total number of independent trials or experiments.
- Probability Of Success: This indicates the likelihood of success in each individual trial.
In R, the pbinom function is used to calculate the cumulative probability of a binomial distribution,
while the dbinom function is used to calculate the probability density function of a binomial
distribution.
- pbinom(x, size, prob): This function calculates the cumulative probability up to the value `x` in a
binomial distribution with a given `size` (number of trials) and `prob` (probability of success in each
trial).
- dbinom(x, size, prob): This function calculates the probability density at the value `x` in a binomial
distribution with a given `size` (number of trials) and `prob` (probability of success in each trial).
These functions are commonly used in data analysis for calculating probabilities related to binomial
distributions, which are often used to model the number of successes in a fixed number of independent
Bernoulli trials.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering
CODE PRINT:
dbinom(4, size=12, prob=0.2)
dbinom(0, size=12, prob=0.2) +
+ + dbinom(1, size=12, prob=0.2) +
+ + dbinom(2, size=12, prob=0.2) +
+ + dbinom(3, size=12, prob=0.2) +
+ + dbinom(4, size=12, prob=0.2)
pbinom(4, size=12, prob=0.2)
OUTPUT PRINT:
ANALYSIS OF ANALTICAL AND R IMPLEMENTATION
RESULTS:
The analysis shows that there is a high likelihood, approximately 92.74%, of achieving 4 correct
answers out of 12 questions, each with 5 possible answers and only one being correct.
The initial method involves manually computing probabilities for 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 correct answers
using `dbinom()` for each scenario and then summing them. While straightforward, this approach can
become challenging for larger trial sizes.
Alternatively, the second approach uses `pbinom()` to compute cumulative probabilities up to a
certain number of successes. For example, specifying `pbinom(4, size = 12, prob = 0.2)` determines
the probability of obtaining 4 or fewer correct answers out of 12 questions.
Both methods yield consistent results, indicating a 92.74% chance of obtaining 4 or fewer correct
answers through random attempts out of 12 questions with 5 possible answers each. This suggests
that even with random guessing, there is a strong probability of achieving a substantial number of
correct answers.
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and
Engineering
Even Term Session 2024-25
IV Semester
23CSE1405: Lab: Introduction to Data
Analysis
0
PRACTICAL JOURNAL for LAB-2 (PR-2)
SUBMITTED BY
Name: Ganesh Bucche
Section: C
Batch: C-3
Roll No.: 244
Registration Number: 23071339
Signature:
Practic Detail
al s
No.
2 If there are twelve cars crossing a bridge per minute on average, find the probability of
having seventeen or more cars crossing the bridge in a particular minute.
Practical-2
AIM: To demonstrate Poison distribution using R.
To explore dpois() and ppois() functions in R.
RELATED THEORY:
Poisson Distribution:
The Poisson distribution models the probability of a certain number of independent event occurrences
within a fixed interval. If λ represents the mean occurrence per interval, then the probability of
observing x occurrences within the interval is given by:
Parameters Of Poisson Distribution:
- Average Rate (λ): This parameter signifies the average number of events occurring in the fixed
interval. It is also equal to the variance of the distribution.
- X: X is the random variable representing the number of events.
- e: e is the base of the natural logarithm (approximately 2.71828).
- λ: λ is the average rate.
- x!: Represents the factorial of x.
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
In R, the dpois function calculates the probability mass function (PMF) of the Poisson distribution, while
the ppois function calculates the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the Poisson distribution.
- dpois(x, lambda): This function computes the probability mass function at the point `x` for a Poisson
distribution with parameter `lambda`, which represents the average rate.
- ppois(q, lambda): This function computes the cumulative distribution function up to the point `q` for a
Poisson distribution with parameter `lambda`, which represents the average rate.
These functions are commonly used in data analysis to calculate probabilities related to Poisson
distributions, which are often used to model the number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time
or space.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering
CODE PRINT:
ppois(16, lambda=12) # lower tail
ppois(16, lambda=12, lower=FALSE) # upper tail
dpois(16, lambda=12)
OUTPUT PRINT:
ANALYSIS OF ANALTICAL AND R IMPLEMENTATION
RESULTS:
Using the `ppois()` function in R sheds light on the likelihood of the number of cars crossing a bridge
in a minute, given an average rate of 12 cars per minute.
1. Probability of Sixteen or Fewer Cars:
- With `ppois(16, lambda=12)`, we find that the chance of having sixteen or fewer cars crossing the
bridge in a minute is about 89.871%. This represents the cumulative probability in the lower tail of the
Poisson distribution.
2. Probability of Seventeen or More Cars:
- By specifying `lower=FALSE` in `ppois()`, we consider the upper tail of the probability density
function. Thus, with `ppois(16, lambda=12, lower=FALSE)`, the probability of having seventeen or
more cars crossing the bridge in a minute is approximately 10.129%.
3. Interpretation:
- Hence, if there are typically twelve cars crossing the bridge per minute, the chance of having
seventeen or more cars crossing in a particular minute is around 10.1%. This suggests that while it's
less common to have a higher number of cars in a minute given the average rate, there's still a
noteworthy possibility of it happening.
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and
Engineering
Even Term Session 2024-2025
IV Semester
23CSE1405: Lab: Introduction to Data
Analysis
PRACTICAL JOURNAL for LAB-2 (PR-3)
SUBMITTED BY
Name: Ganesh Nilkanth Bucche
Section: C
Batch: C-3
Roll No.: 244
Registration Number: 23071339
Signature:
Practic Detail
al s
No.
3 Assume that the test scores of a college entrance exam fits a normal distribution.
Furthermore, the mean test score is 72, and the standard deviation is 15.2. What
is the
percentage of students scoring 84 or more in the exam?
Practical-3
AIM: To demonstrate Normal distribution using R.
To explore dnorm() and pnorm() functions in R.
RELATED THEORY:
Normal Distribution:
The normal distribution is characterized by the following probability density function, where μ
represents the population mean and σ2 denotes the variance.
If a random variable X follows the normal distribution, then we write:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
In particular, the normal distribution with μ = 0 and σ = 1 is called the standard normal distribution,
denoted as N(0,1).
The normal distribution is significant due to the Central Limit Theorem, which asserts that the
distribution of the sample mean of a large number of independent, identically distributed random
variables, approaches a normal distribution, irrespective of the original distribution, as the sample size
increases, with a mean of μ and a variance of σ^2/n, where n is the sample size.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
CODE PRINT:
pnorm(84, mean = 75, sd = 15.2, lower.tail = TRUE)
dnorm(2, mean = 3, sd = 2)
dnorm(-1, mean = -2, sd = 1)
OUTPUT PRINT:
ANALYSIS OF ANALTICAL AND R IMPLEMENTATION
RESULTS:
The analysis indicates that 21.5% of students achieved scores above 84% on the college entrance
exam. This data offers valuable insights into the distribution of exam scores and student performance
relative to a defined threshold. Understanding these scores is crucial for identifying high achievers,
evaluating overall performance trends, and comparing results against expectations. Additionally, it
informs future planning and decision-making in the educational context.
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering
Even Term Session 2024-25
IV Semester
23CSE1405: Lab: Introduction to Data
Analysis
PRACTICAL JOURNAL for LAB-2 (PR-4)
SUBMITTED BY
Name: Ganesh Bucche
Section: C
Batch: C-3
Roll No.: 244
Registration Number: 23071339
Signature:
Practic Detail
al s
No.
4 Implement and perform the following:
(1). Probability that a normal random variable with mean 22 and variance 25
(i) lies between 16.2 and 27.5
(ii) is greater than 29
(iii) is less than 17
(iv) is less than 15 or greater than 25
(2). Probability that in 60 tosses of a fair coin the head comes up
(i) 20,25 or 30 times
(ii) less than 20 times
(iii) between 20 and 30 times
(3). A random variable X has Poisson distribution with mean 7. Find the probability that
(i) X is less than 5
(ii) X is greater than 10
(iii) X is between 4 and 16
(4). Suppose that there are 10 independent trials, and that the probability of success on
each trial is 0.6, find the probability of 5 successes.
(5). At Kerr Pharmacy owner determined that there is a 0.4 chance of any one employee
being late. 5 employees are in the pharmacy. find the probabilities of 0,1,2,3,4, or 5
employees being late simultaneously?
(6). for binomial distribution with n=10 and p=0.45, find:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering
(a) P(r=8)
(b) P(r>4)
(c) P(r<=6)
(7). Suppose toy weights produced at LEGO Toys Works have weights that are normally
distributed with mean 17.46 grams and variance 375.67 grams. What is the probability
that a randomly chosen toy weighs more than 19 grams?
Practical-4
AIM: To explore the Binomial, Poison and Normal distribution related functions in R.
RELATED THEORY:
Binomial Distribution: The concept of binomial distribution unveils the probabilistic essence of discrete
random variables, offering a lens through which managers discern the intricacies of various operational
processes. It delineates outcomes stemming from the Bernoulli experiment, where success and failure
manifest discretely, rather than seamlessly.
Formulaic Expression:
Where:
p symbolizes the probability of success.
q=n−r represents the complementary probability of failure.
r epitomizes the desired count of successes.
n embodies the total number of trials conducted.
Poisson Distribution: The Poisson distribution emerges as the mathematical portrayal of diverse
phenomena, encapsulating occurrences within fixed temporal or spatial domains. It serves as a discrete
probability framework, capturing the frequency of events within stipulated intervals, under the
assumption of independence.
Expression of Probability:
Where:
P(x) signifies the probability of x events.
λ denotes the mean rate of occurrences per interval.
e−λ underscores the influence of the constant e.
x! denotes the factorial of x.
Normal Distribution: The ubiquitous normal distribution, often referred to as the Gaussian curve, stands
as a cornerstone of statistical analysis, epitomizing the symmetrical distribution of data points around
the mean. Its characteristic bell-shaped profile adorns graphical representations, delineating the
probability density function with eloquent precision.
Functional Representation:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Where:
x signifies the value under consideration for cumulative probability.
μ embodies the mean of the distribution.
σ encapsulates the standard deviation of the distribution.
Theory According To & Question
(1) Normal Distribution:
The normal distribution models continuous random variables, depicting a bell-shaped curve around the
mean. We can calculate probabilities within certain ranges by standardizing values and finding
corresponding areas under the curve.
(i) Find the probability within a range.
(ii) Determine the probability greater than a specific value.
(iii) Calculate the probability less than a specific value.
(iv) Find the probability of disjoint events.
(2) Binomial Distribution:
Describes discrete outcomes in a fixed number of trials with a constant probability of success.
(i) Find the probability of specific outcomes.
(ii) Determine the probability of fewer successes.
(iii) Calculate the probability within a range.
(3) Poisson Distribution:
Models discrete events occurring at a constant rate over a fixed interval.
(i) Calculate the probability of fewer occurrences.
(ii) Determine the probability of more occurrences.
(iii) Find the probability within a range.
(4) Binomial Distribution:
Calculate the probability of a specific number of successes in independent trials with a constant
success probability.
(5) Binomial Distribution:
Calculate probabilities for various numbers of successes out of a total number of trials.
(6) Binomial Distribution:
Given parameters, calculate probabilities for specific outcomes.
(7) Normal Distribution:
Calculate the probability of an event occurring within a certain range for normally distributed data.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
CODE PRINT:
1)
i) > pnorm(27.5,22,5) - pnorm(16.2,22,5)
ii) > pnorm(29, 22, 5)
> 1- pnorm(29, 22, 5)
iii) > pnorm(17, 22, 5)
iv) > pnorm(15, 22, 5) + pnorm(25, 22, 5, lower.tail = FALSE)
2)
i) > sum(dbinom(c(20, 25, 30), 60, 0.5))
ii) pbinom(19, 60, 0.5)
iii) > pbinom(30, 60, 0.5) - pbinom(19, 60, 0.5)
3)
i) > ppois(4, 7)
ii) > ppois(11, 7, lower=FALSE)
iii) > ppois(16,7)-ppois(4,7)
4)
> dbinom(5,10,0.6)
5)
> pbinom(5,size = 5,0.4)
6)
i) > dbinom(8,10,0.45)
ii) > 1-pbinom(5,10,0.45)
iii) > pbinom(6,10,0.45)
7)
> 1-pnorm(20,17.46,19.3822083365)
OUTPUT PRINT:
Q1
Q2
Q3
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
ANALYSIS OF ANALTICAL AND R IMPLEMENTATION
RESULTS:
The analysis compared analytical and R-implemented results for various probability scenarios:
Normal Distribution: Both methods aligned, validating the calculations.
Coin Toss: Consistent results were observed, confirming the accuracy of both approaches.
Poisson Distribution: Analytical and R results matched, affirming the correctness.
Binomial Distribution: The calculations were consistent, indicating accuracy.
Pharmacy Employees Being Late: Both methods produced matching results, ensuring accuracy.
Given Binomial Distribution: Analytical and R outcomes aligned, validating the calculations.
Toy Weights: Results from both approaches matched, indicating accuracy.
In summary, the analysis demonstrated the reliability and accuracy of both analytical and R-
implemented methods in calculating probabilities for various distributions, confirming their suitability
for statistical analysis.
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and
Engineering
Even Term Session
2024-25 IV Semester
23CSE1405: Lab: Introduction to Data
Analysis
PRACTICAL JOURNAL for LAB-2 (PR-5)
SUBMITTED BY
Name: Ganesh Bucche
Section: C
Batch: C-3
Roll No.: 244
Registration Number: 23071339
Signature:
Practic Detail
al s
No.
5 Implement and perform the following: Write a function that will simulate numbers from
a given distribution. The function should take one argument for the number of samples
and a second argument which specifies the distribution (Normal, Poisson or Binomial).
The function should be able to handle additional parameters depending on the
distribution chosen, e.g. a ‘lambda’ for
Poisson samples.
Practical-5
AIM: To learn and write user defined function in R.
RELATED THEORY:
In R programming, harnessing the power of user-defined functions is essential for encapsulating
reusable code snippets tailored to specific tasks. This practical aims to delve into the core concepts
surrounding the creation and utilization of such functions in R.
Defining a Function:
In R, functions are defined using the `function()` keyword, followed by the function name and the
function body enclosed in curly braces `{}`.
my_function <- function(arg1, arg2, ...) {
# Function body
# Statements
return(value)
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
}
Accepting Arguments:
Functions can accept one or more arguments, which are the input values provided when calling the
function. Default argument values can be specified using the `=` operator.
greet <- function(name = "User") {
print(paste("Hello", name))
}
Returning Values:
Functions can return a value using the `return()` statement. If omitted, the function returns the last
evaluated expression.
add <- function(a, b) {
return(a + b)
}
Variable Scope:
Variables declared inside a function are local to that function, meaning they are not accessible outside
of it.
scope_example <- function() {
x <- 10 # Local variable
return(x)
}
Invoking a Function:
To call a function, use its name followed by parentheses `()` and pass the required arguments.
result <- add(5, 3)
By mastering these fundamental concepts, you'll be equipped to efficiently create and leverage user-
defined functions in R for a wide range of data analysis and programming tasks.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering
CODE PRINT:
generate_distribution <- function() {
num_samples_input <- as.integer(readline("Enter the number of samples: "))
distribution_input <- readline("Enter the distribution (Normal, Poisson, or Binomial): ")
if (distribution_input == "Normal") {
mean_input <- as.numeric(readline("Enter the mean: "))
sd_input <- as.numeric(readline("Enter the standard deviation: "))
return(rnorm(num_samples_input, mean_input, sd_input))
} else if (distribution_input == "Poisson") {
lambda_input <- as.numeric(readline("Enter the lambda: "))
return(rpois(num_samples_input, lambda_input))
} else if (distribution_input == "Binomial") {
size_input <- as.integer(readline("Enter the size: "))
prob_input <- as.numeric(readline("Enter the probability of success: "))
return(rbinom(num_samples_input, size_input, prob_input))
} else {
stop("Unsupported distribution. Choose from: Normal, Poisson, Binomial")
}
}
# Function call:
samples <- generate_distribution()
cat("Generated samples:", head(samples, 5), "\n")
OUTPUT PRINT:
Nagar Yuwak Shikshan Sanstha’s
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of
Engineering
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
ANALYSIS OF ANALTICAL AND R IMPLEMENTATION
RESULTS:
The provided `generate_distribution()` function allows users to generate random samples from three
types of distributions: Normal, Poisson, and Binomial.
1. For the Normal distribution, users input the desired number of samples, mean, and standard
deviation. The function then uses `rnorm()` to generate random samples based on these parameters.
2. For the Poisson distribution, users input the number of samples and the lambda parameter. The
function utilizes `rpois()` to generate Poisson-distributed random samples.
3. For the Binomial distribution, users input the number of samples, size (number of trials), and
probability of success. The function employs `rbinom()` to generate Binomially-distributed random
samples.
If the user enters an unsupported distribution, such as anything other than Normal, Poisson, or
Binomial, an error message is displayed.
After generating the samples, the function prints the first 5 samples to provide a glimpse of the
generated data. Finally, it prompts the user to choose a distribution for further analysis and plots a
histogram of the generated samples accordingly.
