TIDES: MEANING AND CONCEPTS

Tides are the rise and fall of sea level caused mainly by the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Unlike surface waves, tides
affect the whole water mass from the surface to the sea bottom.
• Definition (P.R. Pinet, 2000): Tides are very long waves that
make the sea level rise and fall with great regularity.
• Definition (H.V. Thurman and A.P. Trujillo, 1999): Tides are the
regular rising and lowering of sea level across the world's
oceans.
In simple words, tides are the periodic movement of sea level due to
the gravitational forces of the moon and sun.

TIDES: CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES

• Tides are single wave phenomena that cover the entire ocean
basin, unlike wind waves that come in a series.
• They are shallow-water waves but have a very long
wavelength, even in deep oceans.
• Tides are different from wind waves:
o Origin: Tides are caused by moon–sun gravity, while wind
waves are caused mainly by wind drag.
o Energy: Tides are low in height but high in energy; wind
waves are higher but have less total energy.
• Crests (high tide water) and troughs (low tide water) occur like
other waves. The vertical difference between them is called
tidal range.
• Tidal range types:
1. Microtidal range – less than 2 m
2. Mesotidal range – 2 to 4 m
3. Macrotidal range – more than 4 m
• High Tide Water (HTW): The highest sea level reached during a
tide.
• Low Tide Water (LTW): The lowest sea level reached during a
tide.
• Tidal bulge: Gravitational pull makes water bulge toward and
away from the moon. The moon creates lunar tidal bulges; the
sun creates solar tidal bulges.
• Lunar day: Time for two high tides (about 12 h 25 m apart),
totaling ~24 h 50 m.
• Flood tide: Sea level rising toward the coast.
• Ebb tide: Sea level falling toward the sea.
• Heights of tides vary due to depth, coastline shape, and
openness of the sea.
• The sun’s bulges are 46% smaller than the moon’s because it is
farther away.

TIDAL PATTERNS
1. Diurnal tidal pattern – One high tide and one low tide each
lunar day (common in shallow seas).
2. Semidiurnal tidal pattern – Two high tides and two low tides
each lunar day with almost equal height (e.g., U.S. east coast).
3. Mixed tidal pattern – Combination of diurnal and semidiurnal;
heights of tides vary (most common globally).
 • Diurnal inequalities: Differences in height between successive
high or low tides in mixed patterns.

TIDAL BORE
• A tidal bore is a steep wall of water moving up a river or bay
with a narrow mouth due to the incoming tide meeting the
outgoing river flow.
• Caused by friction between tidal wave and river flow, forcing
water to rise to unusual heights.

TIDES
Origin of Tides
Tides in oceans happen mainly because of gravitational forces of the
moon and the sun.
• The earth rotates from west to east and moves around the sun
in an elliptical orbit.
• The moon also rotates from west to east and moves around the
earth in an elliptical orbit.
• The distance between the moon and earth changes every
month:
o Apogee – farthest distance (407,000 km)
o Perigee – nearest distance (356,000 km)
Gravitational Effect
• The earth’s surface facing the moon is pulled more strongly →
high tide.
• The opposite side also has high tide due to centrifugal force
(caused by the rotation of earth–moon system).
 • The point facing the moon is called zenith, and the opposite
point is nadir.
Main Causes of Tides
1. Gravitational force of the moon (strongest tide generator)
2. Centrifugal force from the earth–moon rotation
Principles of Gravitational Attraction
1. Greater the mass, stronger the gravitational force.
2. Greater the distance, weaker the gravitational force (inversely
proportional to square of distance).
3. Tide-generating force changes inversely with the cube of the
distance.
Moon vs Sun in Tide Formation
• The sun is much bigger, but the moon is closer.
• The moon’s gravitational pull is 2 times stronger for tides than
the sun’s.
Types of Lunar Tidal Bulges
• Zenith bulge – due to moon’s gravitational pull
• Nadir bulge – due to centrifugal force
Tide Cycle
• Two high tides and two low tides happen every 24 hours.
• Spring tide – Sun, Moon, and Earth in a straight line (full moon
& new moon) → highest tides.
• Neap tide – Sun and Moon at right angles to Earth → lowest
tides (around 8th day of fortnight).
TYPES OF TIDES
The oceanic tides are caused due to the tide-producing forces of the
Sun and the Moon.
These forces vary depending on the position of the Sun, Moon, and
Earth, which leads to different types of tides.

Spring Tides
• Definition: Very high tides caused when the Sun, Moon, and
Earth are in a straight line.
• Position: This alignment is called Syzygy.
o Conjunction: Sun and Moon on the same side of Earth
(new moon, solar eclipse).
o Opposition: Earth between Sun and Moon (full moon).
• Effect: Gravitational forces of Sun and Moon combine → tides
about 20% higher than normal.
• Occurrence: Twice a month (during full moon and new moon),
timing is fixed.

Neap Tides
• Definition: Low tides caused when the Sun, Earth, and Moon
are at a right angle (Quadrature position).
• Effect: Sun and Moon’s gravitational forces work against each
other → tides 20% lower than normal.
• Occurrence: 7th or 8th day after full moon or new moon.

Tropical and Equatorial Tides

 • Tropical Tides:
o Occur when Moon is at maximum declination north or
south of the equator.
o Moon’s rays fall vertically over Tropic of Cancer or Tropic
of Capricorn → spring tides occur.
o High and low waters are unequal in height.
o Occur twice a month.
• Equatorial Tides:
o Occur when Moon is vertical over the equator.
o No difference in height between the two daily tides (no
diurnal inequality).
o Occur every month.

Apogean and Perigean Tides

• Perigean Tides:
o Moon is closest to Earth (Perigee, 356,000 km).
o Strongest tidal force → tides 15–20% higher than normal.
• Apogean Tides:
o Moon is farthest from Earth (Apogee, 407,000 km).
o Weakest tidal force → tides 20% lower than normal.
• Special Cases:
o Spring tide + perigean tide → abnormally high tide.
o Neap tide + apogean tide → extremely low water level.

Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides

 • Diurnal Tides: One high tide and one low tide every 24 hrs 52
min.
• Semi-diurnal Tides: Two high tides and two low tides every 12
hrs 26 min.

Equinoctial Spring Tides

• Occur twice a year during equinoxes (March 21, September 23)
when the Sun is over the equator.
• Caused by Earth’s revolution and Sun’s changing declination.

Zenith and Nadir Tides

• Zenith Tide (Direct Tide): High tide at the point on Earth’s
surface directly under the Moon.
• Nadir Tide (Indirect Tide): High tide on the opposite side of
Earth due to centrifugal force, not Moon’s gravity.

THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF TIDES

Introduction
Numerous theories have been proposed to explain the origin of tides
in oceans. The generation of tides depends on tide-generating forces
resulting from:
• Gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon
• Gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Sun
• Rotation of the Earth–Moon system
Since tides are influenced by multiple forces, their explanation
involves astrophysics, geophysics, hydrodynamics, and
mathematics. Early scientists like Bernoulli, Laplace, Airy, and
Poincaré used hypothetical ocean models, which failed to match real-
world oceans due to irregular coastlines and varied depths.
Two main models are used to explain tides:
1. Equilibrium Model of Tides – assumes an ideal, continuous
ocean surface of infinite depth with no movement of tidal
bulges.
2. Dynamic Model of Tides – considers continents, ocean depths,
and movement of tidal bulges as rotary waves.
Most tidal theories are based on one of these models.

1. Equilibrium Model of Tides

Assumptions
• Earth’s surface is entirely covered by water of infinite depth.
• No land masses or obstacles to tidal wave movement.
• Tidal bulges remain stationary relative to the Moon.
• Water remains in equilibrium under the gravitational pull of the
Moon and centrifugal force from the Earth–Moon rotation.
Explanation
• The Moon’s gravitational pull is strongest on the side of Earth
facing the Moon → causes a zenith tidal bulge.
• On the opposite side, centrifugal force exceeds gravitational
pull → causes a nadir tidal bulge.
• Thus, two bulges exist at the same time on opposite sides of
Earth.
• As Earth rotates, locations pass through bulges (high tide) and
troughs (low tide).
Tidal Patterns by Latitude
• High latitudes: Diurnal tides (one high & one low tide per day)
• Mid-latitudes: Mixed tides
• Low latitudes: Semidiurnal tides (two high & two low tides per
day)
Limitations
• Based on an idealized, water-only Earth.
• Ignores the influence of continents and varying ocean depths.
• The idea of stationary bulges is unrealistic for a rotating Earth.

2. Equilibrium Theory of Newton (1687)

Key Concept
• Proposed in Newton’s Principia.
• Every celestial body exerts a gravitational pull on others.
• The Moon, despite having less total gravitational force than the
Sun, causes larger tides because it is closer to Earth.
Forces Involved
1. Gravitational (Centripetal) Force – pulls water towards the
Moon.
2. Centrifugal Force – acts outward due to Earth–Moon rotation.
Formation of Tidal Bulges
• Side facing the Moon: Gravitational pull > Centrifugal force →
water bulges toward the Moon (high tide).
• Opposite side: Centrifugal force > Gravitational pull → water
bulges away from the Moon (high tide).
 • Areas between bulges experience low tides.
Tidal Cycle
• Earth rotates through two bulges → each location has two high
tides and two low tides per day.
• High tides occur nearest to and farthest from the Moon; low
tides occur at positions perpendicular to theseAlright — I’ll
rewrite all of this in the exact style you liked before:

• Evaluation of Newton's Theory of Tides

• 1. Effect of Land and Water Distribution
• Earth’s surface has both land and water, so the Moon’s
gravitational force is less effective than if Earth were covered
entirely by water.
• 2. Need for Horizontal Movement of Water
• Water bulges are not possible without horizontal movement of
water masses.
• This means water must shift sideways for tidal bulges to form.
• To explain this, the theory was amended: waves move
westward with crests directly under the Moon during tides.
• 3. Time Difference Problem
• According to the theory, high tide should happen at the same
time along a meridian (same longitude).
• In reality, this is not true — for example:
• Liverpool and Leith are on the same longitude (80°W) but high
tides differ by 3 hours.
• 4. Speed of Tidal Waves in Reality
• The theory assumes tidal waves can move around Earth quickly.
• In reality, ocean depth and coastline shapes slow them down.
• Internal and external frictions and barriers (continents, ocean
floor relief) obstruct wave movement.
• Tides are forced waves, not free waves.
• 5. Stationary Bulge Problem
• In reality, tidal bulges are not stationary — they move as rotary
waves inside ocean basins, as in the Dynamic Theory of Tides.
• 6. Ignoring Continents
• The Equilibrium Theory ignores the presence of continents,
which is unrealistic.

• Progressive Wave Theory of Tides

• Proposed by: W. Whewell (1833)
Purpose: Explain origin, timing, and movement of tides.
• 1. Key Points of the Theory
• Earth is heterogeneous (has both continents and oceans).
• Tides occur at different times at different locations along the
same longitude (time-lag effect).
• Tide height and size (magnitude and amplitude) vary by place.
• Tides are tidal waves moving east to west.
• Crests = high tide
• Troughs = low tide
• Wave length and speed depend on sea/ocean depth.
• 2. Role of Continents
• Continents stretch mainly north–south, blocking tidal wave
movement.
• Movement is least obstructed in the Southern Ocean around
Antarctica.
• 3. Primary, Secondary, and Minor Waves
• Primary waves: Start in the Southern Ocean, move east to west
under Moon’s force.
• Secondary waves: Form when primary waves are blocked by
continents and refract northward.
• Minor waves: Form from secondary waves, move northward
but with less energy.
• 4. Time-Lag of Tides
• As waves move north, there is a delay in tide arrival along the
same longitude.
• According to this theory, the age of tides increases northward.
• 5. Limitations
• Real data shows spring tide timing is almost the same from
Cape Horn to Greenland in the Atlantic — contradicting the
theory.
• Tides are often local or regional, not always generated in the
Southern Ocean.
• Cannot explain irregular tidal patterns in different oceans.

• Stationary Wave Theory

• Proposed by: R.A. Harris
Purpose: Explain local and regional tide differences.
• 1. Basic Idea
• Tides are caused by stationary waves in each ocean basin, not
progressive waves from the south.
• Oceans act like giant water trays with oscillating water.
• 2. Tank Analogy
• If water in a rectangular tank is rocked, water rises on one side
and falls on the other, creating oscillations.
• Nodal point: Point where water level does not change.
• Nodal line: Line along which oscillations occur.
• Systems can be uninodal (one nodal point) or binodal (two
nodal points).
• 3. Amphidromic Points
• In oceans, oscillations occur around central points called
amphidromic points.
• Tidal bulges rotate around these points due to Earth’s rotation.
• Water level is calm at these points, but changes around them.
• 4. Movement of Stationary Waves
• Stationary waves move from amphidromic points towards
coasts.
• Their movement is slowed by peninsulas, islands, bays, and
other barriers.
• 5. Depth and Tide Height Relationship
• Deeper oceans → higher stationary waves → higher tides
(spring tides).
• Shallow seas → lower stationary waves → low tides.