Results and Discussion
Methodology
Simulation
Tool: ns-3 network simulator, which was customized for 5G Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) [11].
Scenario: 1,000 low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites (550–1,200 km altitude), 10,000 smartphone users, L/S-
band (1–2 GHz) links, Ka/Ku-band backhaul, and optical inter-satellite links (ISLs, 1–10 Gbps).
Metrics: latency (20–50 ms target), throughput (1–10 Mbps), handover time (<100 ms), packet loss
(<1%), uptime (99.95%).
Conditions: Urban (50% terrestrial coverage), rural (100% satellite), and maritime environments, with
bare all user densities (10–100 users/km²).
Prototype Testing
Setup: 10 smartphones with Qualcomm Snapdragon Satellite or MediaTek MT6825
modems [19, 21], 2x2 MIMO metamaterial antennas (3–6 dBi gain), and 3GPP NTN
protocols (Release 17/18), evaluated using 5 AST SpaceMobile satellites [8].
Locations: Rural Kenya (2026), Fiji islands (2026), and urban California, USA (2027).
Metrics: Power consumption (<5W, coverage (99.95% uptime), user satisfaction
(>90%), reliability (95–100% for messaging/SOS).
Tests: Emergency SOS, text messaging, low-bandwidth data (e.g., email, weather
updates).
Theoretical Analysis
Focus: Spectrum allocation (30 MHz L/S-band), interference (<1% probability), service
cost (<8 USD/month), and socio-economic impact ($52 billion by 2030 [34]).
Sources: FCC Supplemental Coverage from Space (SCS) framework [32], ITU
regulations [31], market projections [37], and technical standards [11, 39].
Results and Discussion
System Performance
Simulations of 1,000 LEO satellites offered 100% global coverage, with 2–3 satellites visible per user with
99.95% uptime. Prototype demonstrations over rural Kenya and Fiji offered 99.9% uptime, and urban
California 100% through hybrid terrestrial-satellite communications. Polar regions showed 98.5% uptime
due to lower satellite density, a narrow gap to be bridged with the addition of 200–300 satellites, in
accordance with Starlink plans [2]. This reaches beyond Apple's iPhone SOS (limited to emergency
messaging) and Starlink's broadband (with specialized terminals), offering universal usability to common
smartphones [2, 4].
The mean round-trip latency was 22 ms in urban, 34 ms in rural, and 42 ms in maritime environments,
within the 20–50 ms objective. Prototype experiments recorded 24–38 ms for messaging and SOS, with
92% of the packets delivered within less than 50 ms. This latency supports messaging and voice
performance, outperforming GEO satellite systems (500–600 ms) and comparing well with initial LEO
trials (50–100 ms) [7]. High-bandwidth applications like video streaming will require further
optimization, preferably using advanced modulation (e.g., 64-QAM) by 2030 [8].
Throughput ranged from 1–8 Mbps in simulations, to 10 Mbps in low-density rural terrain, and 2–5
Mbps in urban terrain with beam contention on average. Prototypes had 1–6 Mbps messaging and low-
bandwidth data support with 96% reliability. Though sufficient for initial messaging and SOS needs,
going up to 50–100 Mbps for bandwidth-consuming applications necessitates more dense constellations
(5,000 satellites) as well as more sophisticated modulation schemes [8]. In contrast to Starlink's 50–200
Mbps (terminal-dependent) and Apple's SOS (<1 Mbps), the D2D system maximizes accessibility and
performance for typical devices [2, 4].
Simulations provided average handover times of 78 ms (satellite-to-satellite) and 88 ms (satellite-to-
terrestrial), with <0.01% call drops. Prototypes achieved 82–94 ms handovers at 99.98% with Skylo's
switching technology [22]. This is superior to cellular standards (150–200 ms), with seamless
connectivity [23]. Satellite mode power expenditure was 3.1–4.7W in simulations and 3.4–4.6W in
prototypes, with <0.4W idle, and would deplete 6–8% of a 4,000 mAh battery daily. Indoor use increased
consumption by 10–15% due to signal attenuation (10–20 dB), like early 5G problems where repeaters
mitigated issues [29]. Low-cost repeaters or mmWave relays, as GSMA recommended, would rectify it
[36].
Technical Feasibility
The system employs metamaterial-based 2x2 MIMO antennas, achieving 3–6 dBi
gain and measuring -120 dBm signals with 10–20 dB beamforming enhancement
[15, 17]. Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMIC) phased arrays support
adaptive polarization and Doppler compensation (±50 kHz), within a <10 cm²
footprint. These technologies, based on Qualcomm's Snapdragon Satellite and
MediaTek's MT6825 chipsets, enable interoperability with 5G/4G networks and 1–10
Mbps with <0.8% packet loss [19, 21]. Compared to outdated satellite phones
(bulky, proprietary), the D2D system enhances accessibility and scalability [10].
Indoor signal loss impairs performance, however, makes necessary working
arounds, such as Terrestar's “Sat Companion” [16].
3GPP NTN protocols (Release 17/18) successfully manage 10 - 20 ms propagation
delays and Doppler shifts, while also directly protecting 99.9 % of all transmissions
using an AES 256 encryption mechanism [11, 33]. Predictive beam steering and
slicing of the network, allows for an interference-free handover from one location to
another, however, all cybersecurity threats in the live environment (jamming,
spoofing), must be monitored 24/7 with AI able to detect anomalies [33]. Although
optical ISL (1 - 10 Gbps) capability will also help reduce the need for ground
stations, which improves resilience and latency, when compared with traditional
satellite networks, being operational from places like dense cities creates
challenges with scheduling, optimized algorithms could be used to manage this, by
enabling network providers to take the opportunity to utilize the MediaTek NR-NTN
trials [19].
Regulatory Compliance
The SCS model by the FCC (2024) provided justification for allocating 30 MHz of L/S-
band in the United States with ITU coordination for global actions, modeling an
interference probability of < 0.4% and testing 3D material characters achieved <
0.7% interference probability [31, 32]. Spectrum monitoring and leveraging
cognitive radio interfaced with AI incorporated the probability of observing
interference < 0.9%, which was better than ITU requirements [30]. However, while
we would all go through the ITU to have a global harmonization of D2D spectrum
harmonization, the global harmonization of working in Europe or Asia would mean I
would have spectrum conflicts which could delay deployments more than 12–18
months as they did when they were deploying 5G-issues [12, 39]. Advocating in
WRC-27 is of critical importance to harmonizing D2D protocols and allocations that
will allow unconstrained to interference-free operation in proactive regions.
Socio-Economic Impact
The prototype tests revealed that 92% of users were satisfied, with 87% noting
improved access to education and health in rural Kenya and Fiji. Emergency SOS
achieved 100% for delivery, messaging achieved 96% reliability, and IoT
applications (e.g., agriculture sensors) achieved 91% uptime, all surpassing Apple's
SOS (90% reliability in rural areas) [4, 26]. These outcomes indicate the potential of
the system to close the global digital divide among the world's 2.5 billion people
without access to it and help facilitate e-learning, telemedicine, and e-commerce for
them [1, 34]. The IoT applications synchronise with the ESA’s 5G satellite trials and
promises smart agriculture and logistics [35]. People forecasting and analysis
project a $10 billion market by 2027 and $52 billion by 2030, with 130 million users
by 2032, representing significant economic possibilities for developing economies,
where connectivity is synonymous for GDP growth [37, 38].
User affordability of the system is still a challenge for market penetration. The price
of the monthly service (<$8) is competitive in developed nations, but expensive in
low-income areas (e.g., in Sub-Saharan Africa average monthly income around $50–
100). Hardware cost ($50–100 for smartphones) should make the system viable for
mid- to high-end devices, but without intervention (from subsidies or public-private
partnerships established as proven in India for the rollout of 4G mobile connectivity)
for low-income users [38]. The MNO partnerships (e.g., T-Mobile, Verizon) covering
70% of global subscribers will help to reduce their amount of infrastructure required
while being at aligned with Deloitte's projections of 25m subscribers across the
globe by 2030 to establish connectivity [25]. The environmental impact of LEO
constellations (e.g., orbital debris) means that sustainable practice in design and
management is strictly adhered to through ITU guidelines and protocols [12].
Comparison with Existing Technologies
The D2D system outperforms existing solutions in accessibility and versatility, as shown below:
Metric D2D System Apple SOS [4] Starlink GEO Satellites
Broadband [2] [7]
Coverage 100% global Limited Regional Global (high
(emergency) (terminals) latency)
Latency 20–50 ms 50–100 ms 20–40 ms 500–600 ms
Throughput 1–10 Mbps <1 Mbps 50–200 Mbps 1–5 Mbps
Device Standard iPhone only Dedicated Proprietary
smartphone terminal phone
Cost <8 USD/month Free $100+/month $50+/month
(emergency)
Applications Messaging, SOS, Emergency only Broadband Voice, data
IoT
The D2D system outperforms GEO systems in latency, Starlink in device compatibility, and
Apple's SOS in scope (messaging, IoT). Throughput, its main drawback, needs to be scaled to
accommodate upcoming high-bandwidth requirements.
Limitations and Future Work
Despite promising results, challenges persist:
1. High Noise Levels: Indoor coverage is impaired because of signal attenuation (10–20 dB).
These can be solved with low-priced repeaters or mm Wave relays [36].
2.Throughput Scaling: Current throughput (1–10Mbps) will constrain high bandwidth
applications. Wider modulation and constellation sizes (64-QAM) will most likely be needed by
2030 [8].
3. Regulation Harmonization: Spectrum use alignment is behind in jurisdictions and most
importantly in Europe. WRC-27 support is vital [12].
4. Security: AES-256 and anti-jamming are considered robust, but such threats change
themselves extremely rapidly in the physical world and require patching on a regular basis [33].
5.Affordability: Service charges (<8 USD/month) are very steep for low-income subscribers.
Public-private partnerships, e.g., micro-financing are key [37].
Future research should prioritize:
6G Integration: Establish NTN protocols for hybrid 6G networks [39].
AI Optimization: Optimize beamforming and spectrum allocation with machine learning
[30].
Pilot Expansion: Have pilots in 20+ countries by 2028 with the vision of reaching 1
million subscribers to demonstrate scalability.
Sustainability: Develop debris-reducing satellite architectures [12].
Energy Harvesting: Research solar-boosted antennas to extend battery life [18].
Conclusion: The D2D satellite network offers technical feasibility with 100% global coverage,
20–50 ms delay, 1–10 Mbps data rate, and power consumption of <5W. Simulations and
prototypes confirm excellent performance with 92% satisfaction to users and 96–100% reliability
for messaging, SOS, and IoT applications. Regulation compliance and a forecasted market of
$52 billion by 2030 establish its viability, but indoor coverage, scaling throughput, affordability,
and global harmonization must be resolved. Beating Apple's SOS, Starlink, and GEO systems for
availability and flexibility, the D2D system stands poised to bridge the digital divide,
transforming education, healthcare, and industry. Future activities need to focus on 6G
integration, AI optimization, and worldwide pilots to ensure connectivity as a human right.
