INDEX

1.​ BASIC MATHEMATICS USED IN PHYSICS................................................................... 2

2.​ VECTOR QUANTITIES.................................................................................................... 8
3.​ UNIT, DIMENSION AND MEASUREMENT................................................................... 12
4.​ PRACTICAL PHYSICS.................................................................................................. 22
5.​ KINEMATICS.................................................................................................................. 24
6.​ LAWS OF MOTION AND FRICTION............................................................................. 33
7.​ WORK, ENERGY AND POWER.................................................................................... 42
8.​ CIRCULATION MOTION................................................................................................ 47
9.​ COLLISION AND CENTRE OF MASS.......................................................................... 50
10.​ROTATIONAL MOTION................................................................................................. 56
11.​GRAVITATION................................................................................................................ 59
12.​ELASTICITY................................................................................................................... 62
13.​HYDROSTATICS............................................................................................................ 66
14.​HYDRODYNAMICS........................................................................................................ 68
15.​SURFACE TENSION...................................................................................................... 70
16.​VISCOSITY..................................................................................................................... 74
17.​THERMAL PHYSICS..................................................................................................... 75
18.​CALORIMETRY.............................................................................................................. 79
19.​KINETIC THEORY OF GASES...................................................................................... 84
20.​THERMODYNAMICS..................................................................................................... 88
21.​SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION...................................................................................... 91
22.​WAVE MOTION AND DOPPLER’S EFFECT.................................................................97
23.​ELECTROSTATICS...................................................................................................... 109
24.​CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR..............................................................................117
25.​CURRENT ELECTRICITY AND HEATING EFFECTS OF CURRENT........................ 122
26.​MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNETIC FIELD..................................................... 131
27.​ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION............................................................................ 141
28.​ALTERNATING CURRENT AND EM WAVES............................................................. 145
29.​RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS............................................................148
30.​WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT.......................................................................................... 158
31.​MODERN PHYSICS..................................................................................................... 161
32.​SEMICONDUCTOR AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS................................................... 171
33.​COMMUNICATION SYSTEM....................................................................................... 177
34.​RELATIVITY................................................................................................................. 185

1
 BASIC MATHEMATICS USED IN PHYSICS

Quadratic Equation

Roots of ax² + bx + c = 0 are:

2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 = 2𝑎

Sum of roots: x1 + x2 = -b/a

Product of roots: x2·x2 = c/a

Binomial Theorem

●​ (1 + x)ⁿ = 1 + n·x + [n(n - 1)/2]·x² + [n(n - 1)(n - 2)/6]·x³ + ...

●​ (1 - x)ⁿ = 1 - n·x + [n(n - 1)/2]·x² - [n(n - 1)(n - 2)/6]·x³ + ...

If x ≪ 1, then:

●​ (1 + x)ⁿ ≈ 1 + n·x

●​ (1 - x)ⁿ ≈ 1 - n·x

Logarithm

●​ log(mn) = log m + log n ●​ log₂(10) = 3.3219

●​ log(m / n) = log m - log n ●​ log₂(e) = 1.4427

●​ log mⁿ = n·log m ●​ log₁₀(2) = 0.3010

●​ log₂(2) = 1 ●​ log₁₀(3) = 0.4771

Componendo and Dividendo Theorem

If p / q = a / b, then: (p + q) / (p - q) = (a + b) / (a - b)

Arithmetic Progression (AP)

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ..., a + (n - 1)d ​ ​ ​ ​ Here, d = common difference

𝑛
Sum of n terms: 𝑆𝑛 = 2
[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

2
 Note:

1.​ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n + 1) / 2

𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
2.​ 1² + 2² + 3² + ... + n² = 6

Geometric Progression (GP)

a, ar, ar², ar³, …​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Here, r = common ratio

𝑛
𝑎(1−𝑟 )
Sum of n terms:​ S = (1−𝑟)

Sum of infinite terms (if |r| < 1): S = a / (1 - r)

Trigonometry

2π radians = 360° ⇒ 1 rad ≈ 57.3°

Right triangle:

If sides are a and b, and hypotenuse is √(a² + b²), then:

●​ sin θ = perpendicular / hypotenuse ●​ cot θ = base / perpendicular

●​ cos θ = base / hypotenuse ●​ sec θ = hypotenuse / base

●​ tan θ = perpendicular / base ●​ cosec θ = hypotenuse / perpendicular

From coordinates (a, b):

sin θ = a / √(a² + b²)

cos θ = b / √(a² + b²)

tan θ = a / b

Reciprocal identities

cosec θ = 1 / sin θ​ ​ sec θ = 1 / cos θ​ ​ ​ ​ cot θ = 1 / tan θ

Fundamental identities

3
sin² θ + cos² θ = 1​ ​ ​ 1 + tan² θ = sec² θ​ ​ ​ 1 + cot² θ = cosec² θ

Compound angle formulas

●​ sin(A ± B) = sin A·cos B ± cos A·sin B

●​ cos(A ± B) = cos A·cos B ∓ sin A·sin B

●​ tan(A ± B) = (tan A ± tan B) / (1 ∓ tan A·tan B)

Double angle formulas

●​ sin 2A = 2·sin A·cos A

●​ cos 2A = cos² A – sin² A = 1 – 2·sin² A = 2·cos² A – 1

●​ tan 2A = (2·tan A) / (1 – tan² A)

ASTC Rule (Sign of trigonometric functions in quadrants)

Quadrant Sine Cos Tan

I (0°–90°) + + +

II (90°–180°) + – –

III (180°–270°) – – +

IV (270°–360°) – + –

Angle transformations

Expression Equivalent

sin(90° + θ) cos θ

sin(180° – θ) sin θ

sin(180° + θ) –sin θ

sin(360° – θ) –sin θ

cos(90° + θ) –sin θ

cos(180° – θ) –cos θ

4
 cos(180° + θ) –cos θ

cos(360° – θ) cos θ

tan(90° + θ) –cot θ

tan(180° – θ) –tan θ

tan(180° + θ) tan θ

tan(360° – θ) –tan θ

Sine Law

●​ (sin A / a) = (sin B / b) = (sin C / c)

Cosine Law

●​ cos A = (b² + c² – a²) / (2bc)

●​ cos B = (c² + a² – b²) / (2ca)

●​ cos C = (a² + b² – c²) / (2ab)

For Small θ

●​ sin θ ≈ θ ●​ tan θ ≈ θ

●​ cos θ ≈ 1 ●​ sin θ ≈ tan θ

Differentiation

●​ If y = xⁿ, then dy/dx = n·xⁿ⁻¹

●​ If y = f(x) = constant, then dy/dx = 0

●​ If y = sin x, then dy/dx = cos x

●​ If y = cos x, then dy/dx = –sin x

●​ If y = e(a·xⁿ), then dy/dx = a·n·xⁿ⁻¹·e^(a·xⁿ)

●​ If y = log x, then dy/dx = 1 / x

●​ If y = u·v, then dy/dx = u·dv/dx + v·du/dx

●​ If y = f(g(x)), then dy/dx = df(g(x))/dg(x) × dg(x)/dx

5
 ●​ If y = u / v, then dy/dx = [v·du/dx – u·dv/dx] / v²

Integration

●​ ∫ xⁿ dx = (xⁿ⁺¹) / (n + 1) + C, where n ≠ –1

●​ ∫ (1 / x) dx = log x + C

●​ ∫ sin x dx = –cos x + C

●​ ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

●​ ∫ e(a·xⁿ) xⁿ⁻¹ dx = (1 / a)·e(a·xⁿ) + C

●​ ∫ (a·x + b)ⁿ dx = [(a·x + b)ⁿ⁺¹] / [a(n + 1)] + C

Maxima & Minima of a Function y = f(x)

For maximum value:

●​ dy/dx = 0 and d²y/dx² = –ve

For minimum value:

●​ dy/dx = 0 and d²y/dx² = +ve

Average of a Varying Quantity

If y = f(x) then average

●​ <y> = (∫[x₁ to x₂] y dx) / (∫[x₁ to x₂] dx) = (∫[x₁ to x₂] y dx) / (x₂ – x₁)

Formulae for Determination of Area

●​ Area of a square = (side)²

●​ Area of a rectangle = length × breadth

●​ Area of a triangle = (1/2) × base × height

●​ Area of a trapezoid = (1/2) × (distance between parallel sides) × (sum of parallel sides)

●​ Area enclosed by a circle = π r² (r = radius)

●​ Surface area of a sphere = 4π r² (r = radius)

●​ Area of a parallelogram = base × height

6
 ●​ Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2π rℓ (r = radius, ℓ = length)

●​ Area of whole surface of cylinder = 2πr(r + ℓ) (ℓ = length)

●​ Area of ellipse = πab (a & b are semi-major and semi-minor axes)

●​ Surface area of a cube = 6(side)²

●​ Total surface area of a cone = πr² + πrℓ = πr(√(r² + h²) (πrℓ = lateral area)

●​ Formulae for Determination of Volume

●​ Volume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height = a·b·ℓ

●​ Volume of a cube = (side)³

●​ Volume of a sphere = (4/3) π r³ (r = radius)

●​ Volume of a cylinder = π r²ℓ (r = radius, ℓ = length)

●​ Volume of a cone = (1/3) π r²h (r = radius, h = height)

Key Points

●​ To convert an angle from degree to radian, multiply it by π / 180°

●​ To convert from radian to degree, multiply it by 180° / π

●​ By help of differentiation, if y is given, we can find dy/dx

●​ By help of integration, if dy/dx is given, we can find y

●​ The maximum and minimum values of the function A cos θ + B sin θ are:

√(A² + B²) and –√(A² + B²) respectively

Algebraic Identities

●​ (a + b)² = a² + b² + 2ab ●​ (a + b)³ = a³ + b³ + 3ab(a + b)

●​ (a – b)² = a² + b² – 2ab ●​ (a – b)³ = a³ – b³ – 3ab(a – b)

●​ (a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²

7
 VECTOR QUANTITIES

A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction, when it is expressed.

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

●​ Resultant Vector: 𝐑 = 𝐀 + 𝐁

●​ Magnitude: R = √(A² + B² + 2AB cos θ)

●​ tan α = (B sin θ) / (A + B cos θ)

●​ If A = B, then R = 2A cos(θ / 2), and α = θ / 2

Special cases:

Rmax = A + B for θ = 0°

Rmin = A – B for θ = 180°

Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram and are directed away

from a common point, then the diagonal represents the resultant vector.

𝐀𝐁 + 𝐀𝐃 = 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐑 or

𝐑 = 𝐀 + 𝐁 = √(A² + B² + 2AB cos θ)

Angle formulae:

tan α = (B sin θ) / (A + B cos θ)

tan β = (A sin θ) / (B + A cos θ)

Vector Subtraction

𝐑 = 𝐀 – 𝐁 = 𝐀 + (–𝐁)

Magnitude:

R = √(A² + B² – 2AB cos θ)

tan α = (B sin θ) / (A – B cos θ)

8
If A = B, then

R = 2A sin(θ / 2)

Addition of More than Two Vectors (Law of Polygon)

If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in the same order, then their resultant

vector is represented by the closing side of the

polygon in the opposite order:

𝐑=𝐀+𝐁+𝐂+𝐃

Rectangular Component of a 3-D Vector

If 𝐀 = Aₓ 𝐢 + Aᵧ 𝐣 + A𝓏 𝐤,

then the angles made with coordinate axes are:

●​ Angle with x-axis: cos α = Aₓ / |𝐀| = Aₓ / √(Aₓ² + Aᵧ² + A𝓏²) = ℓ

●​ Angle with y-axis: cos β = Aᵧ / |𝐀| = Aᵧ / √(Aₓ² + Aᵧ² + A𝓏²) = m

●​ Angle with z-axis: cos γ = A𝓏 / |𝐀| = A𝓏 / √(Aₓ² + Aᵧ² + A𝓏²) = n

Here, ℓ, m, n are called direction cosines.

⇒ ℓ² + m² + n² = 1 (because: cos² α + cos² β + cos² γ = 1)

Alternatively,

sin² α + sin² β + sin² γ = 2

General Vector in x-y Plane

𝐫 = x 𝐢 + y 𝐣 = r(cos θ 𝐢 + sin θ 𝐣)

Scalar Product (Dot Product)

𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = AB cos θ

⇒ Angle between two vectors:

→ →
−1 𝐴 · 𝐵
θ= cos ( 𝐴𝐵 )

If 𝐀 = Aₓ 𝐢 + Aᵧ 𝐣 + A𝓏 𝐤, 𝐁 = Bₓ 𝐢 + Bᵧ 𝐣 + B𝓏 𝐤

9
Then:​ ​ ​ ​ 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = AₓBₓ + AᵧBᵧ + A𝓏B𝓏

(𝐴ₓ𝐵ₓ + 𝐴ᵧ𝐵ᵧ + 𝐴𝓏𝐵𝓏)

And angle between 𝐀 and 𝐁 is: ​ ​ cos θ = (𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁) / |𝐀||𝐁| =
(𝐴ₓ² + 𝐴ᵧ² + 𝐴𝓏²) (𝐵ₓ² + 𝐵ᵧ² + 𝐵𝓏²)

Unit vector dot products:

●​ 𝐢 ⋅ 𝐢 = 1 ●​ 𝐤 ⋅ 𝐤 = 1

●​ 𝐣 ⋅ 𝐣 = 1 ●​ 𝐢 ⋅ 𝐣 = 𝐢 ⋅ 𝐤 = 𝐣 ⋅ 𝐤 = 0

Component of vector 𝐁 along vector 𝐀:

𝐛∥ = (𝐁 ⋅ â) â (where â is unit vector in direction of 𝐀)

Component of vector 𝐁 perpendicular to 𝐀:

𝐛⊥ = 𝐁 − 𝐛∥ = 𝐁 − (𝐁 ⋅ â) â

Cross Product (Vector Product)

𝐀 × 𝐁 = AB sin θ 𝐧̂

(𝐧̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to 𝐀 & 𝐁, direction by

right-hand thumb rule)

^ ^ ^
Determinant Form: 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑖 (𝐴𝑦​𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝑦​) − 𝑗(𝐴𝑥​𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝑥​) + 𝑘(𝐴𝑥​𝐵𝑦​ − 𝐴𝑦​𝐵𝑥​)

Anti-commutative Property:​ ​ 𝐀 × 𝐁 = − (𝐁 × 𝐀)

Vector Identities:

●​ (𝐀 × 𝐁) · 𝐀 = (𝐀 × 𝐁) · 𝐁 = 0

●​ i × i = 0, j × j = 0, k×k=0

●​ i × j = k, j × k = i, k×i=j

●​ k × j = -i, i × k = -j, j × i = -k

Differentiation:

●​ d/dt (𝐀 · 𝐁) = (d𝐀/dt) · 𝐁 + 𝐀 · (d𝐁/dt)

●​ d/dt (𝐀 × 𝐁) = (d𝐀/dt) × 𝐁 + 𝐀 × (d𝐁/dt)

Displacement Vector:

10
When a particle moves from (x₁, y₁, z₁) to (x₂, y₂, z₂), then its displacement vector:

𝐫 = 𝐫₂ − 𝐫₁ = (x₂ - x₁)𝐢 + (y₂ - y₁)𝐣 + (z₂ - z₁)𝐤

Magnitude: |𝐫| = √[(x₂ − x₁)² + (y₂ − y₁)² + (z₂ − z₁)²]

Lami's Theorem:

(sin A) / a = (sin B) / b = (sin C) / c (F₁ / sinθ₁) = (F₂ / sinθ₂) = (F₃ / sinθ₃)

Area of Triangle: Area of Parallelogram:

Area = |𝐀 × 𝐁| / 2 = (1/2) AB sinθ Area = |𝐀 × 𝐁| = AB sinθ

Special Vector Cases:

For parallel vectors: 𝐀 × 𝐁 = 0

For perpendicular vectors: 𝐀 · 𝐁 = 0

For coplanar vectors: 𝐀 · (𝐁 × 𝐂) = 0

11
 ​ ​ UNIT, DIMENSION AND MEASUREMENT

Physical Quantity = Numerical Value × Unit

Systems of Units

MKS CGS FPS MKSQ MKSA

Length (m) Length (cm) Length (ft) Length (m) Length (m)

Mass (kg) Mass (g) Mass Mass (kg) Mass (kg)

(pound)

Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

- - - Charge (Q) Current (A)

Fundamental Quantities in S.I. System and their Units

S.N. Physical Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

1 Mass kilogram kg

2 Length meter m

3 Time second s

4 Temperature kelvin K

5 Luminous intensity candela cd

6 Electric current ampere A

7 Amount of substance mole mol

12
Supplementary Units

●​ Radian (rad) – for measurement of plane angle

●​ Steradian (sr) – for measurement of solid angle

Dimensional Formula

●​ Relation which expresses physical quantities in terms of appropriate powers of

fundamental units.

Use of Dimensional Analysis

●​ To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation

●​ To derive relationship between different physical quantities

●​ To convert units of a physical quantity from one system to another

Conversion formula:

n₁u₁ = n₂u₂ ⇒ n₂ = n₁ × (M₁/M₂)a × (L₁/L₂)b × (T₁/T₂)c

where u = Ma Lb Tc

Limitations of this Method

●​ In mechanics, a formula for a physical quantity depending on more than three other

quantities cannot be derived—only checked.

●​ Applicable only if dependency is of multiplication type.

●​ Cannot derive formulas involving:

○​ Exponential

○​ Trigonometric

○​ Logarithmic functions

●​ Cannot handle equations with additive/subtractive terms like:

○​ s = ut + (1/2)at²

13
 ●​ Provides no information about dimensionless constants.

●​ Dimensions alone may not uniquely identify a physical quantity.

●​ Cannot determine whether a quantity is a scalar or vector.

SI Prefixes

The magnitudes of physical quantities vary over a wide range. The CGPM recommends

standard prefixes for magnitudes too large or too small to be expressed more compactly using

powers of 10.

Prefixes Used for Different Powers of 10

Power Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol

of 10 of 10

10¹⁸ exa E 10⁻¹ deci d

10¹⁵ peta P 10⁻² centi c

10¹² tera T 10⁻³ milli m

10⁹ giga G 10⁻⁶ micro μ

10⁶ mega M 10⁻⁹ nano n

10³ kilo k 10⁻¹² pico p

10² hecto h 10⁻¹⁵ femto f

10¹ deca da 10⁻¹⁸ atto a

14
Units of Important Physical Quantities

Physical Physical
Unit Unit
Quantity Quantity

Angular
rad s⁻² Frequency hertz
acceleration

Moment of
kg·m² Resistance kg·m²·A⁻²·s⁻³
inertia

Self inductance Henry Surface tension newton/m

Universal gas
Magnetic flux Weber joule·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹
constant

Pole strength A·m Dipole moment Coulomb·meter

Viscosity Poise Stefan constant watt·m⁻²·K⁻⁴

Permittivity of
Reactance Ohm Coulomb²/N·m²
free space (ε₀)

Permeability of
Specific heat J/kg°C Weber/A·m
free space (μ₀)

Strength of Planck's
newton·A⁻¹·m⁻¹ joule·sec
magnetic field constant

Astronomical
Parsec Entropy J/K
distance

15
Dimensions of Important Physical Quantities

Physical Physical
Dimensions Dimensions
Quantity Quantity

Momentum M¹ L¹ T⁻¹ Capacitance M⁻¹ L⁻² T⁴ A²

Modulus of
Calorie M¹ L² T⁻² M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²
rigidity

Latent heat Magnetic

M⁰ L² T⁻² M¹ L¹ T⁻² A⁻²
capacity permeability

Self inductance M¹ L² T⁻² A⁻² Pressure M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²

Coefficient of
Planck’s
thermal M¹ L¹ T⁻³ K⁻¹ M¹ L² T⁻¹
constant
conductivity

Solar
Power M¹ L² T⁻³ M¹ L⁰ T⁻³
constant

Magnetic
Impulse M¹ L¹ T⁻¹ M¹ L² T⁻² A⁻¹
flux

Hole mobility in a Current

M⁻¹ L² T⁰ A¹ M⁰ L⁻² T⁰ A¹
semiconductor density

Bulk modulus of Young

M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻² M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²
elasticity modulus

16
 Magnetic

Potential energy M¹ L² T⁻² field M¹ L⁰ T⁻² A⁻¹

intensity

Gravitational Magnetic
M⁻¹ L³ T⁻² M¹ T⁻² A⁻¹
constant induction

Light year M⁰ L¹ T⁰ Permittivity M⁻¹ L⁻³ T⁴ A²

Thermal
M⁻¹ L⁻² T³ K Electric field M¹ L¹ T⁻³ A⁻¹
resistance

Coefficient of
M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻¹ Resistance M L² T⁻³ A⁻²
viscosity

Dimensions of Important Physical Quantities

Physical Physical
Dimensions Dimensions
Quantity Quantity

Momentum M¹ L¹ T⁻¹ Capacitance M⁻¹ L⁻² T⁴ A²

Modulus of
Calorie M¹ L² T⁻² M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²
rigidity

Latent heat Magnetic

M⁰ L² T⁻² M¹ L¹ T⁻² A⁻²
capacity permeability

Self inductance M¹ L² T⁻² A⁻² Pressure M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²

Coefficient of
Planck’s
thermal M¹ L¹ T⁻³ K⁻¹ M¹ L² T⁻¹
constant
conductivity

Power M¹ L² T⁻³ Solar constant M¹ L⁰ T⁻³

17
 Impulse M¹ L¹ T⁻¹ Magnetic flux M¹ L² T⁻² A⁻¹

Hole mobility in a Current

M⁻¹ L² T⁰ A¹ M⁰ L⁻² T⁰ A¹
semiconductor density

Bulk modulus of Young

M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻² M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²
elasticity modulus

Magnetic field
Potential energy M¹ L² T⁻² M¹ L⁰ T⁻² A⁻¹
intensity

Gravitational Magnetic
M⁻¹ L³ T⁻² M¹ T⁻² A⁻¹
constant induction

Light year M⁰ L¹ T⁰ Permittivity M⁻¹ L⁻³ T⁴ A²

Thermal
M⁻¹ L⁻² T³ K Electric field M¹ L¹ T⁻³ A⁻¹
resistance

Coefficient of
M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻¹ Resistance M L² T⁻³ A⁻²
viscosity

Sets of Quantities Having Same Dimensions

S.N Quantities Dimensions

1 Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, M⁰ L⁰ T⁰

solid angle, phase, distance gradient, relative

permeability, relative permittivity, angle of contact,

Reynolds number, coefficient of friction,

mechanical equivalent of heat, electric

susceptibility, etc.

18
2 Mass and inertia M¹ L⁰ T⁰

3 Momentum and impulse M¹ L¹ T⁻¹

4 Thrust, force, weight, tension, energy gradient M¹ L¹ T⁻²

5 Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²

shear modulus, modulus of rigidity, energy

density

6 Angular momentum and Planck’s constant (h) M¹ L² T⁻¹

7 Acceleration, g, and gravitational field intensity M⁰ L¹ T⁻²

8 Surface tension, free surface energy (energy per M¹ L⁰ T⁻²

unit area), force gradient, spring constant

9 Latent heat capacity and gravitational potential M⁰ L² T⁻²

10 Thermal capacity, Boltzmann constant, entropy M L² T⁻² K⁻¹

11 Work, torque, internal energy, potential energy, M¹ L² T⁻²

kinetic energy, moment of force, (q²/C), (L i²),

(qV), (V²C), (q²R t), (V² / R t), (VIt), (PV), (RT),

(mL), (mc ΔT)

12 Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, M⁰ L⁰ T⁻¹

velocity gradient, radioactivity, R / L, 1 / (RC), √(1

/ LC)

19
13 (l/g)¹ᐟ², (m/k)¹ᐟ², (L/R), (RC), (√LC), time M⁰ L⁰ T¹

14 (VI), (q²R), (V² / R), Power M L² T⁻³

Some Fundamental Constants

Constant Value

Gravitational constant (G) 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m² kg⁻²

Speed of light in vacuum (c) 3 × 10⁸ ms⁻¹

Permeability of vacuum (μ₀) 4π × 10⁻⁷ H m⁻¹

Permittivity of vacuum (ε₀) 8.85 × 10⁻¹² F m⁻¹

Planck constant (h) 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ Js

Atomic mass unit (amu) 1.66 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

Energy equivalent of 1 amu 931.5 MeV

Electron rest mass (mₑ) 9.1 × 10⁻³¹ kg = 0.511 MeV

Avogadro constant (Nₐ) 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹

Faraday constant (F) 9.648 × 10⁴ C mol⁻¹

Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ) 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W m⁻² K⁻⁴

Wien constant (b) 2.89 × 10⁻³ mK

20
Rydberg constant (R∞) 1.097 × 10⁷ m⁻¹

Triple point for water 273.16 K (0.01°C)

Molar volume of ideal gas (NTP) 22.4 L = 22.4 × 10⁻³ m³ mol⁻¹

KEY POINTS

●​ Trigonometric functions sinθ, cosθ, tanθ etc. and their arrangements θ are

dimensionless.
𝑛
𝑑 𝑦 𝑦
●​ Dimensions of differential coefficients: 𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

●​ Dimensions of integrals: ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦𝑥

●​ We can't add or subtract two physical quantities of different dimensions.

●​ Independent quantities may be taken as fundamental quantities in a new system of units.

21
 ​ ​ ​ ​ PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

●​ For a number greater than 1:

○​ All non-zero digits are significant.

○​ All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Location of decimal does not

matter.

○​ If the number is without decimal part, then the terminal or trailing zeros are not

significant.

○​ Trailing zeros in the decimal part are significant.

●​ For a Number Less Than 1:

○​ Any zero to the right of a non-zero digit is significant.

○​ All zeros between decimal point and first non-zero digit are not significant.

Significant Figures:

All accurately known digits in measurement plus the first uncertain digit together form significant

figures.

Order of Magnitude: Power of 10 required to represent a quantity.

Propagation of Combination of Errors:

Error in Summation and Difference: If x = a + b, then Δx = Δa + Δb

Error in Product and Division:

If a physical quantity x depends upon y and z as x = y × z, then maximum possible fractional

error in x is: Δx/x = Δy/y + Δz/z

Error in Power of a Quantity: If x = aᵇ, then Δx/x = |b| × (Δa/a)

Least Count:

The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument

is called the least count of the measuring instrument.

22
Vernier Callipers:

●​ Least count = 1 MSD − 1 VSD (MSD → Main Scale Division, VSD → Vernier Scale

Division)

Screw Gauge

Parts:

●​ Spindle

●​ Circular (Head) scale

●​ Linear (Pitch) scale

●​ Thimble on circular scale

●​ Sleeve

Least Count: Least count = Pitch / Total number of divisions on circular scale

Zero Error: If there is no object between the jaws (i.e., jaws are in contact), the screw gauge

should give zero reading. But due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives

some excess Formula:

●​ Observed reading = Actual reading + Excess reading (zero error)

●​ Actual reading = Observed reading - Excess reading (zero error)

23
 KINEMATICS

Distance and Displacement

Total length of path (ACB) covered by the particle in a definite

time interval is called distance.

Displacement vector or displacement is the minimum distance

(AB) and is directed from the initial position to the final position.

Displacement in terms of position vector:

→ → →
From ∆OAB ∆𝑟 = 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴

→ ^ ^ ^ → ^ ^ ^
𝑟𝐵 = 𝑥2𝑖 + 𝑦2𝑗 + 𝑧2𝑘 and 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑥1𝑖 + 𝑦1𝑗 + 𝑧1𝑘

→ ^ ^ ^
⇒ ∆𝑟 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) 𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) 𝑗 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1) 𝑘

Average velocity:
→
→ ∆𝑟
​ ​ ​ ​ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = ∆𝑡

For uniform motion:

Average speed = ∣Average velocity∣ = ∣Instantaneous velocity∣

Average acceleration:
→
→ ∆𝑣
​ ​ ​ 𝑎𝑎𝑣 = ∆𝑡

Important points about 1D motion:

●​ Distance ≥ |Displacement| and Average speed ≥ |Average velocity|

●​ If Distance > |Displacement|, this implies:

○​ (a) At least at one point in the path, velocity is zero.

○​ (b) The body must have retarded (decelerated) during the motion if acceleration

is negative and velocity positive or vice versa.

24
 ●​ Acceleration positive indicates velocity increases, and speed may increase or

decrease depending on the signs of velocity and acceleration.

●​ Speed increases if acceleration and velocity both are positive or both are negative (i.e.,

both have the same sign).

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
In 1-D motion: 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
​

Graphical integration in motion analysis:

From the definition of acceleration,

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

Integrating over time interval t1​to t2​, ⇒ v2−v1=∫a dt

Change in velocity is equal to the area between the acceleration curve and the time axis,

from t1​to t2​.

Similarly, dx=v dt

Integrating over t1​to t2​, ⇒ x2−x1=∫v dt

Change in position (displacement) is equal to the area between

the velocity curve and the time axis, from t1​to t2​.

Important points about graphical analysis of motion:

●​ Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the position-time curve.

●​ Instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the velocity-time curve.

●​ Area under the velocity-time (v-t) curve gives displacement.

●​ Area under the acceleration-time (a-t) curve gives change in velocity.

25
 ●​ Motion with constant acceleration: Equations of motion​

v = u + at​

∆r = r2 - r1 = s = ((u + v) / 2) t = ut + (1/2) a t2 = vt - (1/2)at2​

v2 = u2 + 2a · s​

Sn = u + (a / 2) (2n - 1) (where Sn is displacement in nth

second)

Relative Motion

●​ Motion is meaningful only with respect to a reference or observer. If no reference is

given, ground is assumed as reference.

●​ Velocity or displacement of a particle relative to ground is called actual velocity or actual

displacement.

●​ If motion of a particle is described relative to an object moving w.r.t ground, then:

○​ velocity of particle relative to ground is actual velocity (vactual)

○​ velocity of particle relative to moving object is relative velocity (vrelative)

○​ velocity of moving object relative to ground is reference velocity (vreference)

Formula: vrelative = vactual - vreference

26
Relative velocity of Rain w.r.t the Moving Man

●​ A man walks west with velocity vm (vector OA)

●​ Rain falls vertically down with velocity vr (vector OB)

The relative velocity of rain w.r.t man, vrm = vr - vm, is

represented by diagonal OD of rectangle OBDC.

2 2
Magnitude: 𝑣𝑟𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑚 ​ (since angle between vr and vm is 90 degrees)

If theta is the angle between vm and vertical direction, then: tan(θ) = vm / vr ⇒ θ = arctan(vm / vr)

Swimming into the River

●​ A man swims with velocity v relative to still water.

●​ If water flows with velocity vR, then velocity of man relative to ground is: vm = v + vR

If the swimming is in the direction of the flow of water (downstream), then:

If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the flow of water (upstream), then:

If the man is crossing the river as shown in the figure (i.e.,

velocity v and current velocity VR are not collinear), then use

vector algebra: Vm = v + VR (assuming v > VR)

27
For shortest path:

(swimmer aims straight across the river to point A)

To reach point B,

v · sin θ = VR => sin θ = VR / v

Time of crossing:

d / (v · cos θ)

Note: If v > VR, for minimum drifting, sin θ = VR / v

For minimum time: d / v

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity u in a uniform gravitational field

(neglecting air resistance), then:

(i) Maximum height attained, H = u² / (2g)

(ii) Time of ascent = Time of descent = u / g

(iii) Total time of flight = 2u / g

(iv) Velocity of fall at the point of projection = u (downwards)

(v) Galileo's law of odd numbers:​

For a freely falling body, the ratio of successive distances covered in equal time intervals t is:​

S₁ : S₂ : S₃ : ... : S = 1 : 3 : 5 : ... : (2n - 1)

At any point on its path, the body will have the same speed during upward and downward

journeys.

28
If a body thrown upwards crosses a point in times t₁ and t₂ respectively, then the height of the

point h is: h = (1/2) g t₁ t₂

Maximum height, H = g (t₁ + t₂)² / 2

A body thrown upward, downward, and horizontally with the same speed takes times t₁, t₂, and

t₃ respectively to reach the ground. Then: t₃ = √(t₁ · t₂)

Height from which the particle was thrown, H = (g t₁ t₂) / 2

PROJECTILE MOTION

Horizontal motion:

●​ Acceleration, aₓ = 0

●​ Horizontal velocity, vₓ = u cos θ

(constant)

●​ Horizontal displacement, x = (u cos θ) t

Vertical motion:

●​ Vertical velocity, vy = u sin θ - g t

●​ Vertical displacement, y = (u sin θ) t - (1/2) g t²

●​ Acceleration, ay = -g

Net acceleration vector: a = 0 î - g ĵ = -g ĵ

Velocity of particle at time t:​ vₓ = u cos θ, vy = u sin θ - g t​

If the angle of velocity from horizontal is α, then: tan α = (u sin θ - g t) / (u cos θ)

29
At highest point: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Time of flight:​

vy = 0, vx = u cos θ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ T = (2 u sin θ) / g

Horizontal range:

●​ R = (u cos θ) × T = (2 u² sin θ cos θ) / g = (u² sin 2θ) / g

●​ It is same for angles θ and (90° - θ) and maximum for θ = 45°.

Maximum height:

●​ H = (u² sin² θ) / (2 g)

Equation of trajectory: y = x tan θ - (g x²) / (2 u² cos² θ)

Horizontal projection from some height h:​

Time of flight, T = √((2 h) / g)

Horizontal range, R=u×T

Angle of velocity at any instant with horizontal:​

tan α = (vy) / (vx) = g t) / (u)

Projectile Motion on Inclined Plane — Upward Motion

●​ Initial velocity component along plane:​

ux = u · sin(θ - α)

●​ Initial velocity component

perpendicular to plane:​

uy = u · cos(θ - α)

30
 ●​ Acceleration along the plane: a = g · cos α

●​ Time of flight: T = (2 u · sin(θ - α)) / (g · cos α)

●​ Maximum height: Hmax = (u² · sin²(θ - α)) / (2 g · cos² α)

●​ Range on inclined plane (distance along the incline): R = (2 u² · sin(θ - α) · cos(θ - α)) /

(g · cos² α)

●​ Maximum range: Rmax = (u² / g) · (1 + sin α) / cos² α

●​ Angle for maximum range: θ = (π / 4) + (α / 2)

Projectile Motion on Inclined Plane — Downward Motion

(Replace α by –α in above formulas)

●​ Initial velocity component along plane: ux = u · sin(θ +

α)

●​ Initial velocity component perpendicular to plane:

uy = u · cos(θ + α)

●​ Time of flight: T = (2 u · sin(θ + α)) / (g · cos α)

●​ Maximum height: Hmax = (u² · sin²(θ + α)) / (2 g · cos α)

●​ Range on inclined plane: R = (2 u² · sin(θ + α) · cos(θ)) / (g · cos² α)

●​ Maximum range: Rmax = (u² / g)/(1 – sin α)

●​ Angle for maximum range: θ = (π / 4) – (α / 2)

31
KEY POINTS:

●​ A positive acceleration can be associated with a “slowing down” of the body because the

origin and the positive direction of motion are a matter of choice.

●​ The x–t graph for a particle undergoing rectilinear motion cannot be as shown in some

figures because infinitesimal changes in velocity are physically possible only in

infinitesimal time.

●​ In the oblique projection of a projectile, the speed gradually decreases up to the highest

point and then increases. This happens because the tangential acceleration opposes the

motion until the particle reaches the highest point, after which it favors the motion of the

particle.

●​ In free fall, the initial velocity of a body may not be zero.

●​ A body can have acceleration even if its velocity is zero at an instant.

●​ The average velocity of a body may be equal to its instantaneous velocity.

●​ The trajectory of an object moving under constant acceleration can be a straight line or a

parabola.

●​ The path of one projectile as seen from another projectile is a straight line since the

relative acceleration of one projectile with respect to another projectile is zero.

32
 LAWS OF MOTION AND FRICTION

Force: A push or pull that one object exerts on another.

Forces in Nature​

There are four fundamental forces in nature:

1.​ Gravitational force 3.​ Strong nuclear force

2.​ Electromagnetic force 4.​ Weak force

Types of Forces on Macroscopic Objects

(a) Field Forces or Range Forces: These forces act without physical contact between objects.​

(b) Contact Forces: These exist only when objects are physically touching.​

(c) Attachment to Another Body: Forces like tension in a string (T) and spring force (F = kx)

belong here.

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)​

Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by

an external unbalanced force to change that state.

Inertia: Inertia is the property of a body that opposes any change in its state of motion.​

It is measured by the mass of the body.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

𝑑(𝑚𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
For a variable mass system: ​ 𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

33
For constant mass system: F = ma

Momentum: Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of a body. p = mv

●​ SI Unit: kg·m/s

●​ Dimensions: [M L T⁻¹]

Impulse: It is the product of the force and time interval during

which it acts.

Mathematically, impulse is the area under the force-time curve.

𝑡2

For a finite time interval from t₁ to t₂: 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡

𝑡1

If a constant force F acts for a time interval Δt, then: Impulse = FΔt

Impulse-Momentum Theorem​

Impulse of a force is equal to the change in momentum: FΔt = mvf − mvi

Newton's Third Law of Motion​

Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on

A with the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.

Spring Force (Hooke's Law)​

The force exerted by a spring is proportional to its displacement from natural length: F= -kx

where k = spring constant, x = displacement from natural length.

34
Motion of Bodies in Contact

When two bodies of masses m1​ and m2​ are placed on a frictionless surface and a force F is

applied on one of the bodies, the force with which one body presses the other at the point of

contact is called the force of contact. Both bodies move with the same acceleration a.

(i) Force F acts on the body with mass m1​: F=(m1+m2)×a

If the force exerted by m1​ on m2​ is f (force of contact), then

for body m2​: F − f=m2a

For body m1: f = m1a

The force f represents the action of m1​ on m2​, and by Newton’s third law, m2​ exerts an equal

and opposite reaction force on m1.

Pulley System

Consider two masses m1​ and m2​ connected by a string over a single fixed pulley. The pulley is

assumed to be massless and frictionless, and it changes only the direction of the force.

Case I: m1 > m2​

●​ For mass m1: m1g −T = m1a

●​ For mass m2​: T− m2g = m2a

Where,T = tension in the string, a = acceleration of the masses

35
 𝑚1−𝑚2
Acceleration a: 𝑎 = 𝑚1+𝑚2
× 𝑔

2𝑚1𝑚2
Tension T: 𝑇 = 𝑚1+𝑚2
𝑔

4𝑚 𝑚
Reaction at the suspension of pulley R: R = 2T = 𝑚 +𝑚
1 2
𝑔
1 2

Case II: Force and Acceleration in Pulley System

For mass m1​: T = m1a

For mass m2​: m2g − T = m2a

𝑚2𝑔
Acceleration a: 𝑎 = 𝑚1+𝑚2

𝑚1𝑚2𝑔
Tension T: 𝑇 = 𝑚1+𝑚2

Frame of Reference

●​ Inertial Frame of Reference:​

A frame that is either at rest or moves with a constant velocity along a straight line

(non-accelerating frame).​

All fundamental laws of physics are formulated with respect to inertial frames.

●​ Non-inertial Frame of Reference:​

A frame that is accelerating. Newton's laws do not directly apply here unless a pseudo

force is introduced.

Pseudo Force:​

A fictitious force that appears to act on a mass when observed from a non-inertial frame. It is

given by: Fpseudo= − ma

36
where, m = mass of the body, a = acceleration of the non-inertial frame relative to an inertial

frame.

The pseudo force acts in the direction opposite to the acceleration of the frame.

Free Body Diagrams (FBD):

●​ In an inertial frame, only real forces are considered on the mass.

●​ In a non-inertial frame, pseudo force must be included along with real forces for

Newton’s second law to hold.

Man in a Lift

(a) If the lift moves with constant velocity v (upwards or downwards):

●​ No acceleration ⇒ no pseudo force inside the lift.

●​ Apparent weight = Actual weight W = mg.

(b) If the lift accelerates upwards with acceleration aaa:

●​ Forces acting on the man inside the lift:

○​ Weight W = mg (downwards)

○​ Pseudo force F = ma (downwards)

●​ Apparent weight inside the lift: Wapparent = m(g+a)

(c) If the lift is accelerated downward with acceleration a < g, then:

●​ In the frame of reference inside the lift, a fictitious force F₀ = Ma acts upward.

●​ Weight of the man is always W = Mg, acting downward.

So, apparent weight: W′ = W – F₀ = Mg – Ma = M(g – a)

37
Special Case: If a = g, then W′ = 0​

⇒ This is the condition of weightlessness.​

Thus, in a freely falling lift, the man will experience weightlessness.

Case (d):​

If the lift accelerates downward with acceleration a > g, then:

As per Case (c):​

Apparent weight: W′ = M(g – a) becomes negative.

Interpretation: The man is accelerated upward and will remain at the ceiling of the lift.

Friction: Friction is the force between two surfaces in contact, or the resistance offered by a

medium (like air) to a moving object (e.g., an aircraft).​

It may support motion in some contexts and oppose it in others.

Cause of Friction: Friction arises due to strong atomic or molecular interactions between two

surfaces at points of contact.

Types of Friction

Static Friction​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction​

(When there is no relative motion) (When there is relative motion)

Graph: Applied Force vs Frictional Force

●​ Initially, as applied force increases, static

friction increases proportionally.

●​ At the maximum point, it reaches limiting

friction.

38
 ●​ Once motion begins, kinetic friction takes over and remains constant.

●​ Angle at static limit: 45°

Friction Coefficients and Angles

• Static Friction Coefficient (μ ):​

μₛ = (fₛ)ₘₐₓ / N Where, 0 ≤ fₛ ≤ μₛN, fs =

–Fapplied

(fₛ)ₘₐₓ = μₛN is the limiting friction

• Sliding Friction Coefficient (μₖ):​

μₖ = fₖ / N, fₖ = – (μₖN) v̂ᵣₑₗₐₜᵢᵥₑ

Angle of Friction (λ): The angle between the normal reaction and the resultant of normal

reaction and limiting friction.

tan λ = fₛ / N = μₛN / N = μₛ

Angle of Repose (θ):

The maximum angle of an inclined plane at which a block

remains stationary on the plane without sliding.

●​ tan θ = μₛ

●​ For smooth surfaces, θ = 0°

Diagram Explanation:

●​ N = Normal reaction = Mg cos θ

●​ f = Friction = Mg sin θ

39
 ●​ When tan θ = μₛ, the block is at rest.

Dependent Motion of Connected Bodies

Method I: Constraint Equations

●​ For n moving bodies, use variables x₁, x₂, ..., x ​

Number of constraint equations = number of strings

Method II: Virtual Work Method

●​ The sum of scalar products of forces applied (on connecting links of constant length) and

displacements of corresponding contact points is zero.

●​ Used for calculating tensions and accelerations without considering constraints explicitly.

Key Points

●​ Aeroplanes fly at low altitudes because, as per Newton’s Third Law of Motion, the plane

displaces air, and the air density is higher at low altitudes, enhancing lift.

●​ Rockets operate based on action–reaction: they expel exhaust gases backward,

propelling the rocket forward. This mechanism enables flight at both low and high

altitudes where air resistance may differ.

●​ Pulling a lawn roller is easier than pushing it because pushing increases the apparent

weight, leading to more normal force and greater friction.

40
●​ A moongphaliwala (peanut seller) using a weighing machine inside an elevator earns

more profit when the elevator accelerates upward, as the apparent weight of objects

increases due to the additional upward acceleration (W′ = M(g + a)).

●​ Pulling is easier than pushing on a rough horizontal surface. This is

because:​

○​ In pulling, the force has an upward component that reduces normal reaction (N),

hence reducing friction (f = μN).

○​ In pushing, the force has a downward component that increases normal reaction,

thus increasing friction.

●​ While walking on ice, one should take small steps. This reduces the horizontal force

applied and helps maintain greater normal reaction, minimizing the risk of slipping due to

smaller friction.

●​ A man in a freely falling lift (closed cabin) does not feel gravity. This is due to the

equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass, causing a sensation of weightlessness.

41
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work Done​

W = ∫dW = ∫ F · dr = ∫ F dr cos θ​

Where θ is the angle between force (F) and displacement (dr)

●​ For constant force: W = F · d = F d cos θ

●​ For unidirectional force: W = ∫ F dx​

​ ​ = Area between F–x curve and x-axis

Total Work Done:​

W = ∑ dW = ∑ F dx = Area (P₁P₂NM) = ∫F dx , where x ranging from x1 to x2.​

Nature of Work Done Although work is a scalar quantity, its sign can be:

Negative Work Zero Work Positive Work

●​ When force and ●​ When force is ●​ When force and

displacement are perpendicular to displacement are in

opposite​ displacement​ same direction​

(θ between 90° and (θ = 90°) (θ = 0°)

180°) ●​ E.g., motion in a ●​ E.g., motion under

●​ E.g., work done by circular path under gravity or applied

friction or by gravity tension force force along motion

during upward direction

motion

42
Conservative Forces

●​ Work done does not depend on path

●​ Work done in a round trip is zero

●​ Central forces, spring forces are conservative

●​ Kinetic and potential energy may interchange, but total mechanical energy remains

constant

●​ Work done is completely recoverable

●​ Mathematically, if F is conservative: ∇ × F = 0 (Curl of F is zero)

Non-Conservative Forces

●​ Work depends on path

●​ Work done in round trip ≠ 0

●​ Forces like friction, viscous forces are non-conservative

●​ These forces are velocity-dependent and retarding in nature

●​ Work done against them is dissipated (e.g., heat)

●​ Work done is not recoverable

Kinetic Energy (K)

●​ Energy possessed due to motion K = ½ mv² = ½ m (v · v)

●​ Frame dependent quantity (depends on velocity)

Potential Energy (U)

43
 ●​ Energy possessed due to position/configuration in a conservative field

●​ Defined only for conservative forces

●​ Relative quantity

Force field and Potential energy: F = – ∇U = – (∂U/∂x) î – (∂U/∂y) ĵ – (∂U/∂z) k̂

If force varies in one dimension:​ F = – dU/dx ⇒ U = – ∫ F dx

Potential Energy Curve and Equilibrium

It is a graph that shows how potential energy (U) varies with the position of a particle (x).

Stable Equilibrium

A particle is in stable equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, it tends to return to its original

position.

At Point C: Slope (dU/dx) is negative ⇒ Force (F) is positive

At Point D: Slope (dU/dx) is positive ⇒ Force (F) is negative

At Point A: Point of stable equilibrium ⇒ U = Uₘᵢ , dU/dx = 0 and d²U/dx² = positive

Unstable Equilibrium

44
A particle is in unstable equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, it moves further away from the

equilibrium position.

At Point E: Slope (dU/dx) is positive ⇒ Force (F) is negative

At Point G: Slope (dU/dx) is negative ⇒ Force (F) is positive

At Point B: Point of unstable equilibrium ⇒ U = Uₘₐₓ, dU/dx = 0 and d²U/dx² = negative

Neutral Equilibrium

A particle is in neutral equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, it stays in its new position without

returning or moving further.

At Point H: U = constant, dU/dx = 0, d²U/dx² = 0​

Work–Energy Theorem: W = ΔK.E.​

Change in kinetic energy = Work done by all forces

Work by Conservative Force: F(x) = – dU/dx​

Change in potential energy: ΔU = – ∫ F(x) dx

Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The total mechanical energy (kinetic + potential) of a system remains constant if only

conservative forces are doing work.

●​ Internal conservative force: Wᵢ ₜ = –ΔU

●​ Total: Wₑₓₜ + Wᵢ ₜ = 0 ⇒ Wₑₓₜ = ΔU = ΔK.E.​

⇒ Δ(K.E. + U) = 0 ⇒ K.E. + U = constant

45
Elastic Potential Energy (Spring)

For spring force: F = –kx​

Elastic potential energy: U(x) = ½ kx²

Mass–Energy Equivalence: E = mc²

Power: Power is a scalar quantity

●​ Dimension: M¹L²T⁻³

●​ SI Unit: watt (W) or J/s

●​ 1 Horsepower (HP): 1 HP = 746 W = 550 ft-lb/sec

●​ Average Power (Pₐᵥ): Pₐᵥ = W / t

Instantaneous Power: Instantaneous Power (P) = dW/dt = F · dr/dt = F · v

●​ For a System of Varying Mass: F = d(mv)/dt = m dv/dt + v dm/dt

●​ If v is constant: Then F = v dm/dt ⇒ Power P = F · v = v² dm/dt

●​ In Rotational Motion: P = τ × dθ/dt = τω

Key Points

●​ A body may gain both kinetic and potential energy simultaneously, especially when

mechanical energy conservation doesn't hold (non-conservative forces involved).

●​ In elliptical orbits (e.g., comets), gravitational force is conservative, hence work over one

full trip is zero.

46
 ●​ Work done by static friction may be positive if the force acts along the motion of the

object.

CIRCULATION MOTION

A particle is in circular motion when its distance from a fixed point remains constant while

moving in a plane.

Radius Vector: The vector joining the centre of the circle and the particle. It has constant

magnitude and variable direction, directed outward.

Frequency (n): Number of revolutions per second​

Unit: revolutions per second (r.p.s) or per minute (r.p.m)

Time Period (T): Time to complete one revolution T = 1/n

Angle (θ): θ = s / r , Where s is arc length and r is radius

Average angular velocity: ω = Δθ / Δt

Instantaneous angular velocity: ω = dθ / dt

For uniform angular velocity: ω = 2π / T = 2πn

Angular displacement: θ = ωt

Angular frequency: ω = 2πn

Relation between Linear and Angular Velocity: ω = v / r

Vector Form of Velocity: v = ω × r

47
Acceleration: a = dv/dt = d/dt(ω × r) = dω/dt × r + ω × dr/dt = α × r + ω × v = aₜ + a𝚌

Tangential acceleration: aₜ = dv/dt = αr​

Centripetal acceleration: a𝚌 = ω²r = v² / r = ω²r (toward center)​

Net acceleration magnitude: a = √(a𝚌² + aₜ²) = √((v²/r)² + (dv/dt)²)​

Maximum Speed in Circular Motion

●​ Unbanked road: vₘₐₓ = √(μₛRg)

●​ Banked road: vₘₐₓ = √[(μₛ + tanθ)/(1 – μₛtanθ)] ×

√(Rg) = √tan(θ + φ) × √(Rg)

Speed limits: vₘᵢ = √[Rg tan(θ – φ)] ⇒ vₘᵢ ≤ v ≤ vₘₐₓ​

Where, φ = tan⁻¹μₛ = angle of friction, θ = angle of banking

Cyclist Bending Formula: tanθ = v² / rg

Circular Motion in Vertical Plane

A. Condition to Complete a Vertical Circle

Initial speed (u) ≥ √5gR

If u = √5gR, then:

●​ Tension at the top point C = 0

●​ Tension at the bottom point A = 6mg

●​ Velocity at B: vB = √3gR

●​ Velocity at C: vC = √gR

●​ Tension from A to B: T = mg cos θ + mv² / R

●​ Tension from B to C: T = mv² / R – mg cos θ

48
B. Condition for Pendulum Motion (Oscillatory Condition)

●​ If u ≤ √2gR, the particle only oscillates between points A and B.

●​ Velocity may become zero but Tension never becomes zero between A and B

Tension expression: T = mg cos θ + mv² / R

C. Condition for Leaving the Path

●​ If √2gR < u < √5gR, the particle crosses point B but cannot

complete the full circle.

●​ Tension becomes zero between B and C.

●​ The particle leaves the circular path and follows a parabolic

path.

●​ At the point where T = 0, the angle (θ) from the vertical is given by: cos θ = (u² – 2gR) /

3gR

Key Points

●​ Average angular velocity is a scalar, whereas instantaneous angular velocity is a vector.

●​ Small angular displacement (dθ) is a vector; large angular displacement (θ) is scalar.

●​ Vector addition: dθ₁ + dθ₂ = dθ2,+ dθ₁ but θ₁ + θ₂ ≠ θ₂ + θ₁

Relative Angular Velocity​

Relative angular velocity of particle A with respect to moving particle B is the angular velocity of

the position vector of A w.r.t. B.

Let θ₁ and θ₂ be angles for velocities of A and B respectively. ωAB = (vAB)⊥ / rAB = [vA sin θ₁ + vB

sin θ₂] / r

49
 COLLISION AND CENTRE OF MASS

Centre of Mass (COM): The centre of mass of a system of particles is the point at which the

total mass of the system may be assumed to be concentrated for analysis of translational

motion.

Centre of Mass of Discrete Particles

For a system of n particles with masses m₁, m₂, ...,

m at positions r₁, r₂, ..., rₙ:

Total mass (M): M = m₁ + m₂ + m₃ + ... + m

Centre of Mass vector (R̄CM): R̄CM = (1 / M) × Σ mᵢ rᵢ

Coordinates of COM:

●​ xcm = (1 / M) Σ mᵢ xᵢ

●​ ycm = (1 / M) Σ mᵢ yᵢ

●​ zcm = (1 / M) Σ mᵢ zᵢ

Centre of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution

●​ Centre of Mass vector (R̄CM): R̄CM = (1 / M) ∫ r̄ dm

●​ Coordinates of COM:​

xcm = (1 / M) ∫ x dm​

ycm = (1 / M) ∫ y dm​

zcm = (1 / M) ∫ z dm

Where x, y, z are the coordinates of each elemental mass (dm).

50
Centre of Mass After Removing a Part of the Body

When a part of mass m is removed from a body of total mass M, the new COM becomes:

●​ xCM = (M x – m x′) / (M – m)

●​ yCM = (M y – m y′) / (M – m)

●​ zCM = (M z – m z′) / (M – m)

Where (x′, y′, z′) are the coordinates of the removed mass.

Centre of Mass of Common 3D and Symmetrical Bodies

Body Position of Centre of Mass Shape

Half Ring ycm = (2R) / π

Half Disc (Plate) ycm = (4R) / (3π)

Hollow Hemisphere ycm = R / 2

51
 Solid Hemisphere ycm = (3R) / 8

Equilateral Lamina ycm = h/3

Motion of Centre of Mass (COM)

●​ Velocity of COM: v̄CM = dR̄CM / dt = (m₁v̄₁ + m₂v̄₂ + …) / (m₁ + m₂ + …)

●​ Acceleration of COM: āCM = d(v̄CM) / dt = (m₁ā₁ + m₂ā₂ + …) / (m₁ + m₂ + …)

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum​

Linear momentum of a system remains constant if no external force acts on it.​

From Newton’s second law: F̄ₑₓₜ = d(M v̄CM)/dt

If F̄ₑₓₜ = 0, then M v̄CM = constant​

Impulse–Momentum Theorem

Impulse (J): J = ∫ F̄ dt = Δp̄​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Area under force-time graph)

Collision of Bodies

Collision is an interaction between bodies (either by direct contact or via force at a distance)

that affects their motion, momentum, or energy.

52
In a Collision:

●​ Particles may stick together or move apart.

●​ Physical contact is not always necessary.

●​ Momentum is always conserved.

●​ Mechanical energy may or may not be conserved.

Types of Collisions

Based on Direction:

●​ Head-on Collision

●​ Oblique Collision

Based on Kinetic Energy:

●​ Elastic Collision: K.E. is conserved

●​ Inelastic Collision: K.E. is not conserved

●​ Perfectly Inelastic Collision: Objects stick together after collision

Coefficient of Restitution (e): e = (v₂ – v₁) / (u₁ – u₂)

Value of e is 1 for perfectly elastic; 0 for perfectly inelastic;

0 < e < 1 = inelastic​

Head-On Inelastic Collision (Two Particles)

Let m₁ and m₂ be the masses, u₁ and u₂ their initial

velocities.

Momentum Conservation: m₁u₁ + m₂u₂ = m₁v₁ + m₂v₂

53
Newton's Restitution Law: e = (v₂ – v₁) / (u₁ – u₂)

1.​ v₁ = (m₁ – em₂) / (m₁ + m₂) × u₁ + (1 + e)m₂ / (m₁ + m₂) × u₂

2.​ v₂ = (m₂ – em₁) / (m₁ + m₂) × u₂ + (1 + e)m₁ / (m₁ + m₂) × u₁

Special Cases in Elastic Collision (e = 1)

Equal Masses: If m₁ = m₂ and u₁ ≠ u₂ ⇒ Bodies exchange velocities after collision

Mass of one body ≫ other:

●​ Light body rebounds with nearly double velocity

●​ It reverses direction with same speed; heavy remains nearly at rest

Loss in Kinetic Energy in Inelastic Collision: ΔK = (m₁ m₂ / 2(m₁ + m₂)) × (1 – e²)(u₁ – u₂)²

Oblique Collision In an oblique collision, we resolve velocities along two directions:

Momentum Conservation:

Along x-axis: m₁u₁ cos α₁ + m₂u₂ cos α₂ = m₁v₁ cos β₁ + m₂v₂ cos β₂

Along y-axis (no external force):

●​ m₁u₁ sin α₁ = m₁v₁ sin β₁

●​ m₂u₂ sin α₂ = m₂v₂ sin β₂

54
Newton’s Experimental Law (Restitution Law):

e = (v₂ cos β₂ – v₁ cos β₁) / (u₁ cos α₁ – u₂ cos α₂)

Rocket Propulsion

Thrust Force on Rocket: F = vᵣ × (–dm/dt)

Velocity of Rocket at Any Instant: v = u + gt + vᵣ ln(m₀ / m)

Key Points:

●​ Sum of mass moments about COM is zero: ∑ mᵢ rᵢ = 0

●​ A quicker collision (same velocity change in less time) results in greater force

●​ Heavy water is ideal in reactors when m₁ ≈ m₂ (max energy transfer)

●​ Impulse-momentum theorem = Newton’s 2nd law in integral form

●​ Conservation of linear momentum ↔ Newton’s 1st law (if Fₑₓₜ = 0)

55
 ROTATIONAL MOTION

Key Rotational Quantities:

Torque (τ):
Angular velocity (ω):

τ = r × F = dL/dt
ω = dθ/dt

Rotational Kinetic Energy:

Angular acceleration (α):

K = (1/2) Iω² = L² / 2I
α = dω/dt = d²θ/dt²

Angular momentum (L): Rotational Power:

L = r × p = Iω P=τ·ω

Rotational Motion Equations (Constant α):

●​ ω² = ω₀² + 2αθ
●​ ω = ω₀ + αt
●​ θ = ω₀t + (α/2)(2n – 1)
●​ θ = ω₀t + ½ αt²

Moment of Inertia (I):

●​ For discrete masses: I = Σ mᵢ rᵢ²

●​ For continuous mass: I = ∫ r² dm

●​ Tensor for variable axes, scalar for fixed axis

Radius of Gyration (k): k = √(I/M)

Theorems of Moment of Inertia:

●​ Parallel Axis Theorem: I = Icm + Md² (d = distance between axes)

56
 ●​ Perpendicular Axis Theorem: Iz = Ix + Iy (Applicable for planar laminae)

Rolling Motion

Total Kinetic Energy: Ktotal = ½ Mvcm² + ½ Icm ω²

Where, vcm = velocity of center of mass, Icm = moment of inertia about center of mass, ω =

angular velocity​

Total Angular Momentum: Ltotal = Mvcm R + Icm ω

Pure Rolling (Without Slipping)

●​ Condition: vcm = Rω

●​ In accelerated motion: acm = Rα

●​ If vcm > Rω → Forward slipping

●​ If vcm < Rω → Backward slipping

Kinetic Energy in Pure Rolling:

Ktotal = ½ Mvcm² + ½ (Mk²) × (vcm² / R²) ⇒ Ktotal = ½ Mvcm² (1 + k² / R²)

Rolling on Inclined Plane

●​ Acceleration: a = (g sinθ) / (1 + k² / R²)

●​ Minimum friction coefficient (for pure rolling):​

μmin = tanθ / (1 + R² / k²)

Torque and Work

●​ Torque: τ = I α = dL/dt = d(Iω)/dt

57
 ●​ Change in Angular Momentum: ΔL = τΔt

●​ Work by Torque: W = ∫ τ · dθ

Key Points:

●​ Ladder slipping is more likely when you are higher up; torque becomes less effective.

●​ Rolling spheres slow down due to deformation and misalignment of normal reaction with

the center.

●​ Spokes at the top of a wheel move faster than at the bottom, appearing blurred in

motion.

●​ Instantaneous angular velocity is a vector, though angular displacement can be scalar.

●​ Velocity between two points on a rigid body remains constant instantaneously.

●​ Earth’s angular momentum is affected by mass flow along the equator.

●​ Raw and boiled eggs can be differentiated by observing rolling behavior due to internal

rotation.​

58
 GRAVITATION

Newton’s Law of Gravitation: F = Gm₁m₂ / r²

●​ Conservative and central force field

●​ Conserves both mechanical energy and angular momentum

Gravitational Field (E):

Due to Spherical Shell:

Outside (r > R): E = GM / r²

On the surface (r = R): E = GM / R²

Inside (r < R): E = 0

Due to Solid Sphere:

Outside (r > R): E = GM / r²

On the surface (r = R): E = GM / R²

Inside (r < R): E = GMr / R³

Acceleration Due to Gravity (g):

At height h: gₕ = GM / (R + h)²

For h ≪ R: gₕ ≈ g (1 – 2h/R)

At depth d: gd = GM(R – d) / R³ = g (1 – d/R)

59
Effect of Earth’s Rotation: g' = g – ω²R cos²λ (λ = latitude)

Gravitational Potential (V)

Due to Point Mass: V = –GM / r

Due to Spherical Shell:

Outside (r > R): V = –GM / r

On/Inside (r ≤ R): V = –GM / R

Due to Solid Sphere:

Outside: V = –GM / r

On surface: V = –GM / R

Inside (r < R): V = – GM(3R² – r²) / (2R³)

Potential on Axis of Thin Ring (radius = R, axial distance = x): V = – GM / √(R² + x²)

Escape Velocity: vₑ = √(2GM / R)

Orbital Velocity (at height h): v₀ = √(GM / (R + h))

Orbital Velocity of Satellite (v₀):

For a nearby satellite: v₀ = √(GM / R) = vₑ / √2

Time Period of Satellite (T): T = 2πr / v = 2πr³ᐟ² / √(GM)

Potential Energy (U): U = – GMm / r

60
Kinetic Energy (K): K = ½ mv² = GMm / (2r)

Mechanical Energy (E): E = U + K = – GMm / (2r)

Binding Energy (B.E.): B.E. = – E = GMm / (2r)

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1.​ First Law – Law of Orbits:​

The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.

2.​ Second Law – Law of Areas:​

A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.​

Areal velocity: dA/dt = constant = L / 2m

3.​ Third Law – Law of Periods: T² ∝ r³​

For elliptical orbits: T² ∝ [(rₘₐₓ + rₘᵢ ) / 2]³ Or, T² ∝ (mean radius)³

Key Points

●​ At the center of Earth, a body has center of mass but no center of gravity (if gravitational

field is uniform).

●​ Gravitational force is negligible in everyday experience due to small value of G and

object mass.

●​ Moon travelers land on their backs due to lower gravity on Moon.

●​ Spacecraft are typically launched eastward from the equator due to Earth's rotation,

providing additional speed.

●​ Angular momentum in gravitational fields is conserved, since gravity is a central force.

●​ Kepler’s Second Law is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum.

61
 ELASTICITY

Stress = Internal restoring force / Area = Fₑₛ / A

Types of Stress:

Longitudinal Stress

a)​ Tensile Stress: Due to pulling force

b)​ Compressive Stress: Due to pushing or squeezing force

Volume Stress: Change in volume due to applied force from all sides

Tangential/Shear Stress: Force applied tangentially to the surface causing shape change

62
Strain = Change in size / Original size (Dimensionless)

Longitudinal Strain = ΔL / L

Volume Strain = ΔV / V

Shear Strain = tan φ = l / L = displacement / distance between faces

Angle of Twist (θ) & Shear Angle (φ)

From the twisted cylinder geometry:Arc AA′ = rθ = lφ ⇒ φ = rθ / l

Stress–Strain Curve

●​ Proportional Limit: Stress ∝ strain

(Hooke's Law valid)

●​ Elastic Limit: Beyond this, permanent

deformation begins

●​ Yield Point: Material yields to strain easily

●​ Breaking Point: Fracture occurs

●​ Elastic Region: Region before the elastic

limit

●​ Plastic Region: Beyond elastic limit until breaking

63
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y): Y = Longitudinal Stress / Longitudinal Strain = (F × L) / (A

× ΔL)

If a wire of length L and radius r stretches by ℓ under weight Mg: Y = (Mg / πr²) × (L / ℓ) = MgL /

(πr²ℓ)

Increment in Length Due to Self-Weight: Δℓ = MgL / (2AY) = ρgL² / (2Y)

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K): K = Volume Stress / Volume Strain = –(ΔP) / (ΔV / V)

Or using force and area: K = (F/A) / (–ΔV/V) = P / (–ΔV/V)

Bulk Modulus of Ideal Gas

1.​ Isothermal Process (PV = constant): ⇒ K = P

2.​ Adiabatic Process (PVγ = constant): ⇒ K = γP

3.​ Polytropic Process (PVn = constant): ⇒ K = nP

Compressibility (C): C = 1 / Bulk Modulus = 1 / K

Modulus of Rigidity (η): η = Shear Stress / Shear Strain = (Ftangential / A) / φ

Poisson's Ratio (σ): σ = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain

Work Done in Stretching a Wire: W = ½ × Stress × Strain × Volume​

⇒ W = ½ × (F/A) × (ΔL/L) × A × L = ½ × F × ΔL

Thermal Stress (Rigidly Fixed Rods)

●​ Thermal Strain = αΔθ

●​ Thermal Stress = YαΔθ

64
 ●​ Thermal Tension = YαAΔθ:

Where, α = coefficient of linear expansion, Δθ = change in temperature, Y = Young’s modulus,

A = cross-sectional area​

Effect of Temperature on Elasticity

●​ As temperature increases, intermolecular forces weaken → Elastic constants decrease.

●​ Plasticity increases with temperature (e.g., carbon becomes plastic at high T).

●​ Lead becomes more elastic at very low temperatures (e.g., liquid nitrogen).

●​ INVAR Steel: Alloy for which elastic constants do not vary significantly with temperature.

Effect of Impurities on Elasticity

●​ Young’s modulus (Y) slightly increases

●​ Impurities enhance internal resistance to deformation

65
 HYDROSTATICS

●​ Density (ρ) = Mass / Volume

●​ Specific Weight (w) = Weight / Volume = ρg

●​ Relative Density = Density of given liquid / Density of water at 4°C

Density of Mixture

●​ By Mass Proportion: ρ = (M₁ + M₂ + ...) / [(M₁/ρ₁) + (M₂/ρ₂) + …]

●​ By Volume Proportion: ρ = (ρ₁V₁ + ρ₂V₂ + …) / (V₁ + V₂ + …)

Pressure: Pressure (P) = Normal Force / Area

Variation of Pressure with Depth

●​ At same level: P₁ = P₂

●​ At depth h: P₂ – P₁ = hρg

Accelerating Fluids

Elevator (Upward acceleration a₀): P = hρ(g + a₀)

Horizontal Acceleration (a₀): tan θ = a₀ / g and P₁ – P₂ =

ρg(h₁ – h₂) = ρℓa₀

Rotating Cylinder: h = ω²r² / 2g

Pascal’s Law

●​ Pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted equally in all

directions.

66
 ●​ In an enclosed system, pressure change is uniform across all parts.

Types of Pressure

●​ Atmospheric Pressure (P₀)

●​ Gauge Pressure (Pgauge)

●​ Absolute Pressure (Pabs = Patm + Pgauge)

Atmospheric Pressure (P₀): P₀ = F/A = 101.3 kN/m² = 1.013 × 10⁵ N/m²

●​ Measured using a barometer.

●​ Torricelli discovered atmospheric pressure measurement.

Gauge Pressure: Pgauge = hρg

●​ Measured using a manometer.

Absolute Pressure: Pabs = Patm + Pgauge = P₀ + hρg

●​ Buoyant Force (Archimedes’ Principle):

●​ Buoyant force = Weight of displaced fluid = Vρg

Apparent Weight: Apparent Weight = Actual Weight – Buoyant Force

Rotatory Equilibrium in Floating Bodies

A floating body is in stable equilibrium when the metacentre is above the centre of gravity.

Relative Density of a Body: Relative Density = Density of body / Density of water

67
 HYDRODYNAMICS

Types of Fluid Flow

Steady Flow: Fluid properties (velocity, pressure, density) at a point do not change with time.

Unsteady Flow: Properties change with time at a point.

Streamline Flow: Path followed by fluid particles under steady flow; streamlines do not

intersect.

Laminar Flow: Smooth, orderly motion in parallel layers (low velocity).

Turbulent Flow: Irregular, chaotic fluid motion (high velocity).

Compressible Flow: Fluid density varies from point to point.

Incompressible Flow: Fluid density remains constant.

Rotational Flow: Fluid particles rotate about their own axis.

Irrotational Flow: No rotation of fluid particles about their own axis.

Key Equations

Equation of Continuity: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Conservation of mass)

Bernoulli’s Theorem: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant​ ​ ​ (Conservation of energy)

Kinetic Energy: KE = ½ ρv²

Potential Energy: PE = ρgh

68
Pressure Energy: PE = P

Applications

●​ Venturimeter (horizontal flow): v₂ = √[2gh / (A₁² – A₂²)]

●​ Rate of Flow: Q = A₁A₂√[2gh / (A₁² – A₂²)]

●​ Velocity of Efflux: v = √2gh

●​ Horizontal Range (R): R = 2√h(H – h)

69
 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is the force per unit length acting along the liquid surface, causing it to behave

like a stretched membrane.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

●​ Cohesive Force: Between molecules of the same substance.

●​ Adhesive Force: Between molecules of different substances.

Properties of Surface Tension

●​ Scalar quantity

●​ Acts tangentially to liquid surface

●​ Originates due to cohesive forces

●​ Increases with cohesion

●​ Molecules from interior rise when surface area is increased

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

Cohesive Force: ↑ Cohesion ⇒ ↑ Surface tension

Impurities:

●​ Ionic salts (soluble): ↑ surface tension

●​ Detergents (partially soluble): ↓ surface tension

Temperature:

●​ ↑ Temperature ⇒ ↓ Surface tension

●​ ST of water is maximum at 4°C

70
Contamination:

●​ Dust/oil on surface ⇒ ↓ Surface tension

Electrification:

●​ Induced electric field acts outward ⇒ ↓ Surface tension

Definition of Surface Tension (Force Form)

Force acting per unit length perpendicular to a line on the surface:

●​ For floating needle: 2Tℓ sinθ = mg

Required Force for Lifting a Liquid Film

●​ Circular Disc: Fₑₓ = 2πrT

●​ Wire Frame: Fₑₓ = 2Tℓ
●​ Hollow Disc: Fₑₓ = 2πT(r₁ + r₂)
●​ Ring: Fₑₓ = 4πrT
●​ Square Plate: Fₑₓ = 4aT
●​ Square Frame: Fₑₓ = 8aT

Work Done in Surface Energy: Work = Surface Energy = T × A

Liquid drop: W = 4πr²T

Soap bubble: W = 8πr²T

Splitting of Drops

●​ When a big drop splits into n smaller drops: R = n¹ᐟ³ r

●​ Work done = Change in surface energy: ΔW = 4πR²T (n¹ᐟ³ – 1)

71
Excess Pressure

●​ In liquid drop: Pₑₓ = 2T / R

●​ In soap bubble: Pₑₓ = 4T / R

Angle of Contact (θ₍c₎)

Defined as the angle between the tangent to the liquid surface and the solid surface at the point

of contact.

●​ θ < 90° → Concave meniscus → Liquid rises

●​ θ > 90° → Convex meniscus → Liquid falls

●​ θ = 90° → Plane surface → No rise or fall

Effects on θ₍c₎

●​ Temperature ↑ → Surface tension ↓ → cosθ ↑ → θ ↓

Impurities:

●​ Solute (ionic) ↑ ST ⇒ θ ↓

●​ Partial solutes ↓ ST ⇒ θ ↓

●​ Water-proofing agents increase angle ⇒ contact becomes obtuse

Capillarity

●​ Capillary rise: h = (2T cosθ) / (rρg)

●​ Zurin’s law: h ∝ 1/r

●​ Jeager’s Method: T = (rg / 2)(Hₚ – h_d)

●​ With meniscus correction: T = [rg / (2 cosθ)] (h + r/3)

72
Special Cases in Surface Tension

●​ Two soap bubbles in contact: r = (r₁ × r₂) / (r₁ – r₂)

●​ Two bubbles merging: r = √(r₁² + r₂²)

●​ Force to separate two plates: F = (2AT) / d

73
 VISCOSITY

Newton’s Law of Viscosity F = ηA(Δv / Δy)

SI Units: N·s/m² = deca poise

CGS Units: dyne·s/cm² = poise​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (1 decapoise = 10 poise)

Viscosity Dependencies

On Temperature:

●​ Liquids: ↑T ⇒ ↓ η (due to decreased cohesion)

●​ Gases: ↑T ⇒ ↑ η (due to increased diffusion)

On Pressure:

●​ Liquids: ↑P ⇒ ↑ η

●​ Gases: almost no effect

Important Formulas

●​ Poiseuille’s Equation (Laminar Flow in Pipe): Q = (πr⁴ / 8ηL) × ΔP

●​ Viscous Force: Fᵥ = 6πηrv

●​ Terminal Velocity: vₜ = (2r²(ρ – σ)g) / (9η)

●​ Reynolds Number: Rₑ = (ρvd) / η

○​ Rₑ < 1000 ⇒ Laminar

○​ Rₑ > 2000 ⇒ Turbulent

74
 THERMAL PHYSICS

TEMPERATURE SCALES

Scale Symbol LFP UFP Divisions

Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100

Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180

Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100

Conversion Formula:

●​ (C – 0)/100 = (F – 32) /180 = (K – 273.15) /100

●​ For any new scale: (X – LFP)/(UFP – LFP)

OLD & MODERN THERMOMETRY

●​ Old Thermometry: θ = (X – X₀) /(X₁₀₀ – X₀)

(X = thermometric property like length, resistance)

●​ Modern Thermometry:​

T = 273.16 × (X/Xₜ)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Uses triple point of

water)

THERMAL EXPANSION

In Solids

75
Linear Expansion: ℓ = ℓ₀(1 + αΔT)

Areal Expansion: A = A₀(1 + βΔT)

Volume Expansion: V = V₀(1 + γΔT)

For isotropic solids: α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3

For anisotropic solids:

●​ βₓᵧ = αₓ + αᵧ

●​ γ = αₓ + αᵧ + α_z

In Liquids

●​ Apparent Expansion: γₐ = Apparent Volume Increase / (Initial Volume × ΔT)

●​ Real Expansion: γᵣ = True Volume Increase / (Initial Volume × ΔT)

●​ Relation: γᵣ = γₐ + γvessel

76
In Gases

●​ Coefficient of Volume Expansion: γᵥ = ΔV / (V₀ΔT) = 1/T

●​ Coefficient of Pressure Expansion: γₚ = ΔP / (P₀ΔT) = 1/T

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

I. Bi-metallic Strip

●​ Used in thermostats

●​ Different α values cause bending

II. Simple Pendulum Time Period

●​ T = 2π√(ℓ/g) ⇒ ΔT/T = ½ αΔθ

III. Scale Reading

●​ Expansion leads to incorrect readings

●​ Scale reading = actual value × (1 + αΔθ)

IV. Thermal Stress

●​ Thermal Strain = Δℓ/ℓ = αΔθ

●​ Stress = YαΔθ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Y = Young’s modulus)

SPECIAL CASES & ANOMALIES

Expansion in Enclosed Volume

77
 ●​ h = [V₀(γₗ – 3α)ΔT] / [A₀(1 + 2α)ΔT]

Anomalous Expansion of Water

●​ From 0°C to 4°C, Contracts on heating and expands on cooling

●​ Density maximum at 4°C

●​ Important for aquatic survival in cold regions

KEY POINTS

●​ Liquids expand more than solids

●​ Rubber contracts on heating

●​ Water pipes may burst in cold countries due to expansion during freezing

78
 CALORIMETRY

Thermal Capacity (C): C = Q / ΔT​

(Heat required to raise temperature of entire body by 1°C or 1K)

Specific Heat Capacity: c = Q / (mΔT) ​​ ​ (Heat required per unit mass per °C)​

Molar Heat Capacity: Cₘ = Q / (nΔT)​ ​ ​ ​ (Heat required per mole per °C)​

Water Equivalent (W): W = mass of body×(specific heat of body / specific heat of water)

Latent Heat (L): Heat for phase change (at constant temperature), Q = mL​

Principle of Calorimetry: Heat Lost = Heat Gained​

For temperature change: Q = msΔT​

For phase change: Q = mL​

Heating Curve

●​ Graph of Temperature vs Time for a

substance

●​ Flat lines ⇒ phase change (latent

heat)

●​ Slope ∝ 1 / Specific Heat

KEY POINTS (Calorimetry)

●​ Steam burns are more severe than water at the same temperature.

●​ Heat is energy transferred from hot to cold body.

●​ 1 calorie = heat to raise 1g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

●​ Clausius & Clapeyron equation: dP / dT = L / T(V2−V1)

●​ ​MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

79
 Conduction Convection Radiation

Transfer via particle vibrations Transfer via actual motion of Transfer via

(no movement of particles) fluid particles electromagnetic waves

Dominant in solids Dominant in liquids and gases Does not require

medium

THERMAL CONDUCTION

Rate of Heat Flow: dQ / dt = − KA(dT / dx), or Q / t = KA(T1−T2) / ℓ

Where, K = thermal conductivity, A = area, ℓ = length of conductor

Thermal Resistance (Rₕ): Rh = ℓ / KA​

Rods in Series: Keq = ∑ℓ / ∑(ℓ/K)​​

Rods in Parallel: Keq = ∑KA / ∑A​​

Growth of Ice on Ponds: t = ρL(x22−x12) / 2Kθ

80
RADIATION

Spectral Interactions on a Body

●​ Incident Radiation: Q = Qᵣ + Qₐ + Qₜ

●​ Reflective Coefficient: r = Qᵣ / Q

●​ Absorptive Coefficient: a = Qₐ / Q

●​ Transmissive Coefficient: t = Qₜ / Q

For Ideal Cases:

●​ Perfect reflector: r = 1, a = t = 0

●​ Perfect absorber (black body): a = 1, r = t = 0

●​ Perfect transmitter: t = 1, r = a = 0

Reflection/Absorption/Transmission (%)

●​ Reflection % = (Qᵣ / Q) × 100

●​ Absorption % = (Qₐ / Q) × 100

●​ Transmission % = (Qₜ / Q) × 100

Stefan–Boltzmann Law

●​ For black body: E = σT⁴

●​ For any body: E = eσT⁴ (0 < e ≤ 1)

Prevost’s Theory of Heat Exchange

●​ A body radiates and absorbs heat simultaneously

●​ Net heat flow depends on Tbody and Tsurroundings

81
Kirchhoff’s Law

●​ Emissive power / Absorptive power = same for all bodies at thermal equilibrium

BLACKBODY RADIATION & COOLING LAW

Perfectly Black Body

●​ A body that absorbs all incident radiation is called a perfectly black body.

●​ Its absorptive power (a) = 1 and emissive power (e) is maximum.

Absorptive Power (a): Defined as: a = (Energy absorbed by body) / (Incident radiant energy)

Emissive Power (e): Defined as: e = (Energy emitted per unit time per unit area)​

Kirchhoff’s Law

●​ e / a = constant

●​ A good absorber is also a good emitter.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

●​ If θ = body temperature, θ₀ = surrounding

temperature:

dθ/dt ∝ (θ – θ₀) ⇒ θ = θ₀ + (θ₁ – θ₀)e⁻ᵏᵗ

82
Wien’s Displacement Law

●​ λₘ × T = constant = 2.89 × 10⁻³ mK

●​ λₘ = wavelength of maximum emission

SOLAR CONSTANT

The energy per unit area per unit time received at

the Earth from the Sun in absence of

atmosphere.​

It is given by : S = (Rₛ² / R²) × σT⁴

Where, Rₛ = Radius of sun, R = Distance from

sun to Earth, T = Surface temperature of sun, σ

= Stefan’s constant, S ≈ 1.4 kW/m² or 2

cal/cm²/min

Key Points

●​ Copper has high thermal conductivity (used in cookware bottoms).

●​ Double-layer clothing traps insulating air.

●​ In satellites, boiling is not possible due to weightlessness.

●​ Metals conduct heat well due to free electrons.

83
 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Basic Postulates

●​ Gases are made up of many identical particles (molecules).

●​ Molecules are point masses undergoing elastic collisions.

●​ No attractive/repulsive forces act between molecules.

●​ Motion is random in all directions with varying speeds.

●​ Molecular size << distance between molecules.

Pressure Due to Gases

●​ Molecules collide with container walls and exert pressure.

●​ Density of gas is uniform throughout the container.

Kinetic Interpretation of Pressure: PV = (1/3)Nm(vᵣₘₛ)²

Where, m = mass of one molecule, N = number of molecules, vᵣₘₛ = root mean square speed

Ideal Gas Equation: PV = μRT ⇒ P = (μNₐkT) / V ⇒ PV = NkT

GAS LAWS

Law Statement

Boyle’s Law V ∝ 1/P (T constant)

Charles’s Law V ∝ T (P constant)

84
 Gay-Lussac’s Law P ∝ T (V constant)

Avogadro’s Law V ∝ n (P, T constant)

Dalton’s Law Total pressure = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ + … (Partial)

Graham’s Law Rate ∝ 1/√(density)

Van der Waal’s Real Gas Equation: (P + an2 / V2)(V−nb) = nRT

Where a and b are constants specific to the gas.

Critical Constants

●​ Critical temperature: Tₛ = 8a / 27Rb

●​ Critical volume: Vₛ = 3b

●​ Critical pressure: Pₛ = a / 27b²

MOLECULAR SPEEDS

Speed Type Formula

vrms √(3RT / Mₐ)

vavg √(8RT / πMₐ)

vmp √(2RT / Mₐ)

85
KINETIC ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE

●​ KEavg per molecule = (3/2)kT

●​ PV = (1/3)Nm(vᵣₘₛ)² = Nk

DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND ENERGY

Type of Gas f Internal Energy (U)

Monoatomic 3 U = (3/2)nRT

Diatomic 5 U = (5/2)nRT

Diatomic (high T) 7 U = (7/2)nRT

Equipartition Law: Each degree of freedom contributes (1/2)kT to the energy.

SPECIFIC HEATS (Cv and Cp)

Molar Specific Heat: C = (1/μ) × (dQ/dT)

At Constant Volume (Cv): Cv = (1/μ) × (dU/dT)

●​ For monoatomic gas: Cv = (3/2)R

●​ For diatomic gas: Cv = (5/2)R

●​ For linear triatomic gas: Cv = (5/2)R

At Constant Pressure (Cp): Cp = Cv + R (Mayer’s Relation)​

86
Degrees of Freedom (f), Cv, and Cp Summary

Gas Type Transl Rotat Total (f) Cv Cp

Monoatomic 3 0 3 (3/2)R (5/2)R

Diatomic 3 2 5 (5/2)R (7/2)R

Triatomic (lin.) 3 2 5 (5/2)R (7/2)R

Triatomic
3 3 6 3R 4R
(non-lin.)

1
Mean Free Path (λₘ): λ𝑚 = 2
2π𝑑 𝑛

Where, d = molecular diameter, n = number density = N/V​

Mixture of Non-reacting Gases

●​ Molecular Weight: Mmix = (μ1M1+μ2M2+...) / (μ1+μ2+...)

●​ Specific Heat at Constant Volume: Cvmix = (μ1Cv1+μ2Cv2+...) / (μ1+μ2+..)​

●​ Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: Cpmix = (μ1Cp1+μ2Cp2+...) / (μ1+μ2+...)

87
 THERMODYNAMICS

Zeroth Law: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium

with C.

First Law: Q = ΔU + W

●​ Heat supplied = Increase in internal energy + Work done

Sign Conventions

●​ Q > 0 ⇒ Heat absorbed by system

●​ W > 0 ⇒ Work done by system

●​ ΔU > 0 ⇒ Rise in internal energy

GAS PROCESSES

Cyclic Process : ΔU = 0 ⇒ Q = W

Isochoric Process (V = constant): Q = μCvΔT and W = 0​

Isobaric Process (P = constant)

●​ W = μRΔT ●​ ΔU = μCvΔT
●​ Q = μCpΔT

Adiabatic Process (PVγ = constant)

●​ W = –ΔU ​ ●​ W=[P₂V₂ – P₁V₁]/(1 – γ)

●​ Q = 0
= μCv(T₁ – T₂)

88
Isothermal Process (T = constant)

●​ ΔU = 0

●​ Q = W = μRT ln(V₂/V₁)

Polytropic Process (PVx = constant)

●​ Molar heat capacity: C = Cv+ R / (1–x)

●​ Work done: W = nR(T1–T2) / (x- 1)

●​ Slope of P–V diagram: (dP/dV) = –x P / V

HEAT ENGINES AND CYCLES

Efficiency of a Heat Engine:v η = W / Q1 = (Q1 – Q2) / Q1 = 1 – Q2 / Q1

Carnot Engine: ηCarnot = 1 – T2 / T1 Refrigerator: β = Q2 / W = Q2 / (Q1 – Q2) =1 - T2 / T1

BULK MODULUS OF GASES

Isothermal Bulk Modulus: BIT =–V(∂P / ∂V)

Adiabatic Bulk Modulus: BAD = –γV(∂P / ∂V)

89
KEY POINT

●​ For same ΔV, monoatomic gas does the least work during adiabatic expansion (due to

lowest γ).

●​ Carnot Engine​

A Carnot engine is a hypothetical engine that

works with maximum possible efficiency.​

The Carnot cycle includes:

○​ 1 → 2 : Isothermal expansion (heat absorbed = Qₛ)

○​ 2 → 3 : Adiabatic expansion

○​ 3 → 4 : Isothermal compression (heat rejected = Qᵣ)

○​ 4 → 1 : Adiabatic compression

Efficiency (η) η = 1 - (T₄ / T₁)​

90
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Displacement equation: x = A sin(ωt + ϕ)

Velocity: v = dx/dt = Aω cos(ωt + ϕ)

Acceleration: a = d²x/dt² = -Aω² sin(ωt + ϕ) = -ω²x

Angular displacement (for rotational SHM): θ = θ₀ sin(ωt + ϕ)

Angular velocity: dθ/dt = θ₀ω cos(ωt + ϕ)

Angular acceleration: d²θ/dt² = -θ₀ω² sin(ωt + ϕ)

Kinetic Energy: K = (1/2) m v² = (1/2) m A² ω² cos²(ωt + ϕ)

Potential Energy: U = (1/2) k x² = (1/2) k A² sin²(ωt + ϕ)

Total Energy: E = K + U = (1/2) k A² (constant)

Average Energy over One Cycle

●​ ⟨K⟩ = (1/4) k A²

●​ ⟨U⟩ = (1/4) k A²

●​ ⟨E⟩ = (1/2) k A²

Position average (from x = -A to x = +A)

●​ ⟨K⟩ = (1/3) k A²

●​ ⟨U⟩ = (1/6) k A² + U₀

●​ ⟨E⟩ = (1/2) k A² + U₀

91
Time Period and Frequency

Time period: T = 2π / ω

Frequency: f = 1 / T = ω / 2π

Angular frequency: ω = √(k / m)

Linear SHM: d²x/dt² + ω²x = 0

Angular SHM: d²θ/dt² + ω²θ = 0

Spring Block System

●​ Time period of mass m attached to spring of

constant k: T = 2π√(m / k)

●​ For two masses m₁ and m₂ connected with a spring

(reduced mass μ): T = 2π√(μ / k), where μ = (m₁ × m₂) / (m₁ + m₂).

●​ If spring has mass mₛ and block mass m: Effective mass = m + mₛ/3 ⇒ T = 2π√[(m +

mₛ/3) / k]

Spring Combinations

1. Series combination: 1 / kₑff = 1 / k₁ + 1 / k₂ + 1 / k₃ and T = 2π√(m / kₑff)

2. Parallel combination: kₑff = k₁ + k₂ + k₃ and T = 2π√(m / kₑff)

92
Time Periods of Pendulums

Simple pendulum: T = 2π√(L / g)

Simple pendulum with large amplitude (θ₀):​

T = 2π [1 + (1/16)θ₀² + ...] √(L / g) — approximate

expansion​

T = 2π [π + 2 sin⁻¹(θ₁ / θ₀)] √(L / g)

If pendulum length comparable to Earth radius R: T = 2π√[L / (g(1 + L/R))]

For pendulum through Earth tunnel: T = 2π√(R / g)

Physical pendulum T = 2π√[I / (mgL)]

or T = 2π√[(k² + L²) / (gL)]

where I = moment of inertia = mk²

Conical pendulum T = 2π√(L cos θ / g) or T = 2π√(h / g)

Torsional pendulum T = 2π√(I / k) where k = torsional constant, I = moment of inertia

Second pendulum T ≈ 2 s (standard) and L ≈ 1 m on Earth’s surface

93
SHM in Accelerating Systems

●​ Cage accelerating upward (a): gₑff = g + a → T = 2π√(L / gₑff)

●​ Cage accelerating downward (a): gₑff = g - a → T = 2π√(L / gₑff)

●​ Cage accelerating sideways: gₑff = √(g² + a²) → T = 2π√(L / gₑff)

SHM of Gas-Piston System

●​ Bulk modulus: B = -ΔP / (ΔV/V)

●​ Restoring force: F = -B A² x / V₀

●​ T = 2π√(m V₀ / B A²)

SHM of Floating Body

●​ Restoring force: F = -ρAgx

●​ T = 2π√(h / g)

SHM in U-tube (liquid column): T = 2π√(h / g)

Spring Cut into Two Parts

If a spring of constant k is cut into parts of lengths ℓ₁ and ℓ₂: ℓ₁ / ℓ₂ = m / n​

Then: k₁ = (m + n)k / m and k₂ = (m + n)k / n​

Key Points on SHM

●​ SHM is projection of UCM on a diameter.

●​ Period of stiff spring is shorter (since k is large).

●​ Mechanical energy remains constant.

●​ Max KE can be greater than ME if PE is negative.

●​ Energy oscillates at 2 × frequency of displacement.

94
Free, Damped, Forced Oscillations and Resonance

Free Oscillation

●​ The oscillations of a particle with fundamental frequency under the influence of restoring

force are defined as free oscillations.

Damped Oscillations

●​ The oscillations of a body whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are defined as

damped oscillations.

●​ In these oscillations, the amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially due to

damping forces like frictional force, viscous force, etc.

●​ If the initial amplitude is X0​, then amplitude after time t will be: x = X0e−γt where γ =

damping coefficient.

Forced Oscillations

●​ The oscillations in which a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic

force (driver) are known as forced oscillations.

●​ The driven body does not oscillate with its natural frequency; rather, it oscillates with the

frequency of the driver.

●​ The amplitude of the oscillator decreases due to damping forces but remains constant

due to the energy gained from the external source (driver).​

95
Resonance

●​ When the frequency of external force (driver) is equal to the natural frequency of the

oscillator (driven), then this state of the driver and the driven is known as the state of

resonance.

Resonance & Damped Oscillations

●​ In the state of resonance, there occurs maximum transfer of energy from the driver to the

driven. Hence the amplitude of motion becomes maximum.

●​ In the state of resonance, the frequency of the driver (ω) is known as the resonant

frequency.

Damped Oscillations

Damping force: Fₐ = −b·v​ ​ ​ ​ (where v = velocity, b = damping constant)

Restoring force on block: F = −k·x

So net force on block: Fnet = −k·x − b·v ⇒ m·a = −k·x − b·v

⇒ m·(d²x/dt²) + b·(dx/dt) + k·x = 0

This is the differential equation of damped oscillation.​

Solution of the equation is: x = A₀·e(−(b·t)/(2m)) · sin(ω′·t + ϕ)

Where: A(t) = A₀·e(−(b·t)/(2m)) So: A(t) = A₀·e(−γ·t) , γ = b / 2m and ω′ = √(k/m − b²/4m²)

Energy in Damped Oscillation

E(t) = (1/2)·k·A(t)² = (1/2)·k·[A₀·e(−(b·t)/(2m))]² = (1/2)·k·A₀²·e(−(b·t)/m) = E₀·e(−(b·t)/m)

96
 WAVE MOTION AND DOPPLER’S EFFECT

A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space, transports energy and momentum from one

point to another without the transport of matter.

Classification of Waves

1.​ Medium necessity

a.​ Mechanical (Elastic) waves

b.​ Non-mechanical (EM) waves

2.​ Propagation of energy

a.​ Progressive waves

b.​ Stationary (Standing) waves

3.​ Vibration of medium particle

a.​ Transverse waves

b.​ Longitudinal waves

4.​ Dimension

a.​ 1-D (e.g., waves on strings)

b.​ 2-D (e.g., water surface ripples)

c.​ 3-D (e.g., sound, light waves)

●​ A mechanical wave can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the medium and

excitation mode.

●​ In strings, mechanical waves are always transverse.

●​ In gases and liquids, mechanical waves are longitudinal (fluids cannot sustain shear).

●​ On liquid surfaces, partially transverse waves may exist due to surface tension.

●​ In solids, mechanical waves (e.g., sound) can be transverse or longitudinal.

97
 ●​ In longitudinal waves, oscillatory motion of particles occurs parallel to the direction of

wave motion.

Plane Progressive Waves

●​ Wave equation: y = A·sin(ω·t − k·x), where k = 2π/λ

●​ Differential Equation: ∂²y/∂x² = (1/v²)·∂²y/∂t²

●​ Wave velocity (v) = dx/dt = ω/k

●​ Particle velocity: vₚ = dy/dt = A·ω·cos(ω·t − k·x)

●​ Particle acceleration: aₚ = ∂²y/∂t² = −ω²·A·sin(ω·t − k·x)

Phase relations (For different particles):

●​ Particle 1: vₚ ↓ , aₚ ↓

●​ Particle 2: vₚ ↑ , aₚ ↑

●​ Particle 3: vₚ ↑ , aₚ ↑

●​ Particle 4: vₚ ↓ , aₚ ↓

Relation: Δϕ/2π = Δλ/λ = ΔT/T

Energy in Wave Motion

●​ Kinetic Energy (KE) per volume: (1/2)·ρ·vₚ² = (1/2)·ρ·ω²·A²·cos²(ω·t − k·x)

●​ Potential Energy (PE) per volume: (1/2)·ρ·(dy/dx)² = (1/2)·ρ·ω²·A²·cos²(ω·t − k·x)

●​ Total Energy (TE) per volume: ρ·ω²·A²·cos²(ω·t − k·x)

●​ Pressure energy density (Average total energy/volume): = (1/2)·ρ·ω²·A²

●​ Power: P = (energy density)·(volume/time) = (1/2)·ρ·ω²·A²·v·S (where S = area of

cross-section)

98
 ●​ Intensity (I) = Power / Area = (1/2)·ρ·ω²·A²·v

●​ Speed of Transverse Wave on String: v = √(T/μ) (μ = mass/length, T =

tension)

Wave Fronts

●​ Spherical wave front: from point source

●​ Cylindrical wave front: from linear source

●​ Plane wave front: from distant source or large distance​

Wave Function Representation

●​ A wave can be represented as y = f(kx ± ωt)

●​ Differential form: ∂²y/∂x² = (1/v²)·∂²y/∂t² where v = ω/k

Wave Intensity vs. Source Type

●​ From point source: I ∝ 1/r²

●​ From cylindrical source: I ∝ 1/r

●​ From plane source: I = constant

99
Wave functions:

●​ y(r, t) = (A/r)·sin(ω·t − k·r)

●​ y(r, t) = (A/√r)·sin(ω·t − k·r)

●​ y(r, t) = A·sin(ω·t − k·r)

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

Let y₁ = A₁ sin(ωt − kx) and y₂ = A₂ sin(ωt − kx + ϕ₀)

So, y = y₁ + y₂ = A sin(ωt − kx + ϕ) where A = √(A₁² + A₂² + 2A₁A₂ cosϕ₀)

and tanϕ = (A₂ sinϕ₀) / (A₁ + A₂ cosϕ₀)

As I ∝ A², So, I = I₁ + I₂ + 2√(I₁I₂) cosϕ₀

For constructive interference (maximum intensity): ϕ₀ = 2nπ or path difference = nλ,

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...

Imax = (√I₁ + √I₂)2

For destructive interference (minimum intensity): ϕ₀ = (2n + 1)π or path difference = (2n + 1)λ/2

Imin = (√I₁ − √I₂)2

Degree of hearing = (Imax − Imin) / (Imax + Imin) × 100​

Reflection and Refraction (Transmission) of Waves

Incident wave: yᵢ = A₁ sin(ωt − k₁x)

Reflected wave: yᵣ = Aᵣ sin(ωt + k₁x)

100
Transmitted wave: yₜ = Aₜ sin(ωt − k₂x)

●​ The frequency of the wave remains unchanged.

●​ Amplitude of reflected wave: Aᵣ = [(v₂ − v₁) / (v₁ + v₂)] A₁

●​ Amplitude of transmitted wave: Aₜ = [(2v₂) / (v₁ + v₂)] A₁

Cases:

●​ If v₂ > v₁, i.e., medium-2 is

rarer, then: Aᵣ > 0 → No

phase change in reflected

wave.

●​ If v₂ < v₁, i.e., medium-1 is

rarer, then: Aᵣ < 0 →

Phase change of π in reflected wave.

●​ The phase of the transmitted wave always remains unchanged.

●​ When reflecting from a denser medium or fixed end, the reflected wave undergoes

inversion (π phase shift).

●​ The transmitted wave is never inverted.

Beats

When two sound waves of nearly equal (but not exactly equal) frequencies travel in the same

direction, due to their superposition, intensity alternately increases and decreases — called

beats.

101
Stationary Waves / Standing Waves

Two waves: y₁ = A sin(ωt − kx) and y₂ = A sin(ωt + kx)

Using superposition: y = y₁ + y₂ = 2A cos(kx) sin(ωt) → Equation of stationary wave

This satisfies: ∂²y/∂x² = (1/v²) ∂²y/∂t²

●​ Amplitude varies periodically with position

●​ Nodes (Amplitude = 0): cos(kx) = 0 → x = λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4, ...

●​ Antinodes (Amplitude = max): cos(kx) = ±1 → x = 0, λ/2, 3λ/2, ...

●​ Nodes divide the medium into loops.

●​ Particles in a loop are in phase; adjacent loops are out of phase.

●​ Energy is confined in each segment (no transmission).

Transverse Stationary Waves in a Stretched String

Fixed at both ends

●​ Fundamental (1st harmonic): λ = 2ℓ, f = v / 2ℓ

●​ Second harmonic (1st overtone): λ = ℓ, f = 2v / 2ℓ

●​ Third harmonic (2nd overtone): λ = 2ℓ/3, f = 3v / 2ℓ

●​ Fourth harmonic (3rd overtone): λ = ℓ/2, f = 4v / 2ℓ

Fixed at one end

●​ Fundamental: λ = 4ℓ, f = v / 4ℓ

●​ Third harmonic (1st overtone): λ = 4ℓ/3, f = 3v / 4ℓ

●​ Fifth harmonic (2nd overtone): λ = 4ℓ/5, f = 5v / 4ℓ

●​ Seventh harmonic (3rd overtone): λ = 4ℓ/7, f = 7v / 4ℓ

102
Sonometer: A string of length ℓ, tension T,

and linear density μ

Resonant frequency: f = (p / 2ℓ) √(T / μ)

where p = number of loops

Sound Waves

Velocity of Sound in a Medium

●​ Velocity of sound in a medium of elasticity (E) and density (ρ): v = √(E / ρ)

●​ For Solids (Young's Modulus): v = √(Y / ρ)

●​ For Fluids (Bulk Modulus): v = √(B / ρ)

Newton's Formula (Isothermal Process): B = P → v = √(P / ρ)

Laplace Correction (Adiabatic Process): B = γP → v = √(γP / ρ)​

Key Points

●​ As temperature increases, velocity of sound increases: v = √(γRT / Mw)

●​ With rise in humidity, velocity of sound increases due to presence of water vapor in air.

●​ Pressure has no effect on the velocity of sound in a gas (as long as temperature remains

constant).

103
Displacement and Pressure Wave

A sound wave can be described using:

●​ Displacement Wave: y = A sin(ωt − kx)​

Pressure Wave: p = p₀ cos(ωt − kx), where p₀ = ρAωv

Note: Sensors (like ears and microphones) detect pressure changes, so pressure wave

representation is preferred.

Key Point:

●​ Pressure wave is 90° out of phase with displacement wave.​

(Displacement is maximum when pressure is minimum, and vice versa.)

Vibrations of Organ Pipes

Stationary longitudinal waves:

●​ Closed end → Displacement node

●​ Open end → Displacement antinode

Closed-End Organ Pipe​

●​ Only odd harmonics are present

●​ Maximum wavelength = 4l

104
Frequencies:

●​ l = λ / 4 → f = v / 4l

●​ l = 3λ / 4 → f = 3v / 4l

●​ l = 5λ / 4 → f = 5v / 4l

General Formula: fm = (2m + 1) v / 4l, where m = 0, 1, 2, …

Open-End Organ Pipe​

●​ All harmonics are present.

●​ Maximum wavelength = 2l.

Frequencies:

●​ l = λ / 2 → f = v / 2l

●​ l = λ → f = 2v / 2l

●​ l = 3λ / 2 → f = 3v / 2l

General Formula: fm = mv / 2l, where m = 1, 2, 3, …

End Correction

105
 ●​ Due to air momentum, reflection occurs slightly above the open end:Let e = 0.6R (R =

radius of pipe)

Corrected Frequencies:

●​ In closed organ pipe: f₁ = v / [4(l + e)]

●​ In open organ pipe: f₁ = v / [2(l + 2e)]

Resonance Tube

●​ A resonance tube has one end closed and the other open.

●​ First resonance: Length l = λ/4

●​ Second resonance: Length l = 3λ/4

●​ Wavelength (λ) is found by: λ = 2 × (l₂ - l₁)

●​ End correction (e): Typically, e ≈ 0.3 × diameter of tube

106
Intensity of Sound (in Decibels)

●​ Sound Level (SL) in decibels (dB): SL = 10 × log₁₀(I / I₀)​

where I₀ = 10⁻¹² W/m² (threshold of human hearing)

Characteristics of Sound

●​ Loudness → Sensation due to intensity of sound.

●​ Pitch → Sensation due to frequency of sound.

●​ Quality (Timbre) → Sensation due to waveform or shape of sound wave

Doppler’s Effect in Sound

●​ A stationary source emits wavefronts at regular intervals. A moving observer perceives a

change in frequency based on approach or recession.

●​ A moving source emits wavefronts with changing wavelength (compression or stretching

of wavefronts).

●​ Doppler Effect: Apparent change in frequency due to relative motion of source and

observer along the line of sight.

Observed Frequency (Sound) n' = n × (v + vo) / (v - vs)

Where, n = actual frequency, n' = observed frequency, v = speed of sound, vo = speed of

observer (positive if approaching), vs = speed of source (positive if moving away).

●​ If vo, vs << v, then approximate: n' ≈ n × (1 + vo/v + vs/v)

●​ Mach Number = (Speed of source) / (Speed of sound)

107
Doppler’s Effect in Light

Case I: Source and Observer Moving Directly Toward or Away: v' = v × (1 ± v/c)

●​ Frequency increases → Violet Shift

●​ Wavelength: λ' = λ × (1 ± v/c)

Case II: Relativistic Doppler Effect: v' = v × √[(1 - v/c) / (1 + v/c)]

●​ Wavelength: λ' = λ × √[(1 + v/c) / (1 - v/c)]

●​ Frequency decreases → Red Shift

108
 ELECTROSTATICS

Electric Charge

●​ Property of matter that causes it to experience force in an electric field.

●​ Two types: Positive and Negative.

●​ S.I. Unit: Coulomb (C)

●​ Charge is:

○​ Quantized (comes in multiples of elementary charge e)

○​ Conserved.

○​ Additive.

Coulomb’s Law

●​ Force between two point charges: F = k × (q₁q₂ / r²) where, k = 1 / (4πε₀), ε = dielectric

constant of medium.

●​ Applicable for stationary point charges. Moving or extended charges may involve

magnetic effects or induced charges.

Principle of Superposition

●​ Net force on a charge = vector sum of forces due to all other charges.

●​ Force due to one charge is independent of presence of others.

109
Electric Field (E)

●​ Region around a charge where another charge experiences a force.

●​ Direction: Along force on a positive test charge

●​ Magnitude: E = F / q = k × (Q / r²)

●​ Units: N/C or V/m

Null Point for Two Charges

●​ If |Q₁| > |Q₂|, the null point is near Q₂.

●​ Distance of null point from Q₁: x = r × (√Q₂) / (√Q₁ ± √Q₂)

Use + for like charges, – for unlike charges.

Equilibrium of Three Point Charges

●​ Two charges must be like-signed; third charge must be opposite.

●​ Equilibrium position of third charge: x = r × √Q₁ / (√Q₁ + √Q₂)

Equilibrium of Symmetric Configurations

●​ Square (4 charges at corners, 1 at center): Qcenter = -q × (2√2 + 1)

●​ Equilateral triangle (3 at corners, 1 at center): Qcenter = -q × √3

Equilibrium in Suspended Charge System

110
Conditions: T cosθ = mg and T sinθ = Fe

⇒ tanθ = Fe / mg and Fe = k × Q² / x² ⇒ T = √[(Fe)² + (mg)²]

In zero gravity (e.g. satellite): θ = 90°, so T = Fe

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

●​ Potential difference: ΔV = W / q

●​ Potential at distance r from a point charge: V = k × Q / r

●​ Relation with electric field: E = -dV/dx

●​ For multiple charges: V = k × Σ(qi / ri)

Electric Potential Energy: Two charges: U = k × q₁ × q₂ / r

Electric Dipole

●​ Dipole moment: p = q × d

●​ Torque: τ = p × E = pE sinθ

●​ Work done: W = pE (cosθ₁ - cosθ₂)

●​ Potential energy: U = -p × E

●​ Potential at distance r, angle θ: V = (1 /

4πε₀) × (p cosθ / r²)

●​ Electric field at that point: E = (1 / 4πε₀) × (p × √(1 + 3cos²θ) / r³)

●​ Direction: tanα = Eθ / Er

●​ Axial point: E = (1 / 4πε₀) × (2p / r³)

●​ Equatorial point: E = (1 / 4πε₀) × (p / r³)

111
Equipotential Surfaces

●​ Lines/surfaces where potential is constant.

●​ Always perpendicular to electric field lines.

●​ In a region where E = 0, the entire region is equipotential (e.g., inside conductors).

Mutual Potential Energy / Interaction Energy

●​ For 2 charges: U = k × q₁ × q₂ / r

●​ For 3 charges: U = k × (q₁q₂ / r₁₂ + q₂q₃ / r₂₃ + q₃q₁ / r₃₁)

●​ For n charges: Total mutual energy has n(n–1)/2 terms

Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

●​ For uniform electric field: Φ = E × A × cosθ

●​ For non-uniform E: Φ = ∫ E · dA

●​ Gauss’s Law: Φ = qenclosed / ε₀

●​ Flux depends only on enclosed charge, not on shape/size of surface or external

charges.

Electric Field and Potential for Different Charge Distributions

Conducting Sphere

●​ For r ≥ R (outside the sphere):

E = (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / r²)

and V = (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / r)

112
 ●​ For r < R (inside the sphere):

E = 0 and V = (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / R)

Non-Conducting Solid Sphere

●​ For r ≥ R (outside the sphere):

E = (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / r²)

V = (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / r)

●​ For r < R (inside the sphere):

2 2
1 𝑞𝑟 1 𝑞 (3𝑅 −𝑟 )
𝐸 = 4πϵ0 𝑅3
and 𝑉 = 4πϵ0 3
2𝑅

At center (r = 0): Vcentre = (3 / 2) × (1 / 4πε₀) × (q / R) = 1.5 × Vsurface

Spherical Shell (Conducting or Non-Conducting)

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
●​ For r ≥ R: 𝐸 = 4πϵ0 𝑟2
,𝑉 = 4πϵ0 𝑟

1 𝑞
●​ For r < R: E = 0 and 𝑉 = 4πϵ0 𝑅

Charged Circular Ring

1 𝑞𝑥
●​ Electric field at a point on axis (distance x): 𝐸 = 4πϵ0 (𝑥2+𝑅2)3/2

1 𝑞
●​ Potential at the same point: 𝑉 = 4πϵ0 (𝑥2+𝑅2)1/2

●​ Field is maximum at: x = ± R / √2

113
Long Conducting Cylinder (Uniformly Charged)

●​ For r ≥ R (outside): E = q / (2πε₀rL)

●​ For r < R (inside): E = 0

Electric Field Near a Charged Conductor

●​ Electric field just outside: E = σ / ε₀

●​ Mechanical pressure on the conductor: P = σ² / (2ε₀).

Infinite Sheet of Charge

●​ For non-conducting sheet: E = σ / (2ε₀)

●​ For conducting sheet: E = σ / ε₀

Energy Density in Electric Field: u = (1 / 2) × ε₀ × E²

Electric Field Lines (Lines of Force)

1.​ They are imaginary.

2.​ They never cross each other.

3.​ They are not closed loops.

4.​ Number of lines starting/ending on a charge is proportional to the magnitude of charge.

○​ In rationalised MKS: 1 C → 1/ε₀ lines.

5.​ Lines begin or end perpendicularly on conductors.

6.​ If no electric field, no lines exist.

7.​ Density of lines represents field strength.

114
 8.​ Tangent to a line = direction of electric field.

Key Points on Electric Fields and Potential

●​ The electric field is always perpendicular to a conductor's surface.

●​ No tangential component exists on equipotential surfaces.

●​ On charging a conductor, charge resides on the surface only.

●​ Charge density is highest at convex, sharp edges (smaller radius of curvature).

For any shape conductor: Ejust outside = σ / ε₀

●​ Potential difference between two points in an electric field is path-independent.

●​ Potential is positive for positive charges and negative for negative charges.

●​ Positive charge moves from higher to lower potential (with E-field).

●​ Negative charge moves opposite to E-field.

Dipole Equilibrium

●​ Dipole in stable equilibrium: p parallel to E

●​ Dipole in unstable equilibrium: p anti-parallel to E

Redistribution of Charge Between Conductors

●​ When a charged conductor is connected to an uncharged conductor, potentials become

equal, and charges redistribute.

Self-Potential Energy

●​ Conducting spherical shell: U = (1 / 2) × (k × Q² / R)

●​ Non-conducting (uniform) sphere: U = (3 / 5) × (k × Q² / R)

115
Behavior of Spherically Symmetric Charges

●​ Outside, the charge behaves as if concentrated at the center.

Dielectric Strength

●​ Maximum electric field the material can withstand without breakdown.

Other Important Facts

●​ Particles with no rest mass (e.g., photons, neutrinos) → cannot carry charge.

●​ Electric charge is invariant: doesn't change with frame of reference.

●​ Any spherical body behaves like a point charge for outside regions.

●​ No electrostatic effect from within a shell to outer region (and vice versa).

●​ A charged particle's motion depends on initial conditions; may not follow field lines.

●​ Electrostatics fails in humid weather — water conducts charge.

●​ A metallic hollow shell acts as a shield, blocking electric fields inside.

116
 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR

CAPACITOR & CAPACITANCE

A capacitor consists of two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign.

The capacitance C of any capacitor is the ratio of the charge Q on either conductor to the

potential difference V between them: C = Q / V

The capacitance depends only on the geometry of the conductors and not on an external

source of charge or potential difference.

CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR

For a spherical conductor of radius R in a medium with permittivity ε: C = 4 π ε R

If the sphere is in air, replace ε with ε₀ (permittivity of free space).

This sphere is assumed to be at an infinite distance from all other conductors.

SPHERICAL CAPACITOR

It consists of two concentric spherical shells. The capacitance of the

region between the two shells is: C₁ = (4 π ε a b) / (b - a)

The capacitance outside the shell is: C₂ = 4 π ε b

117
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

(i) Uniform Dielectric Medium

If two parallel plates, each of area A, separated by a distance d, are charged with equal and

opposite charges Q, the system is called a parallel plate capacitor. Its capacitance is:

C = (ε A) / d

●​ In air as the medium, ε = ε₀.

●​ This formula is valid only when the electric field between the plates is uniform.

(ii) Medium Partly Air

When a dielectric slab of thickness t and relative permittivity εr is introduced between the plates

of an air capacitor, the effective distance between the plates is reduced by:

deffective = d - t(1 - 1/εr)

This is irrespective of the position of the dielectric slab.

(iii) Composite Medium

For a composite medium, the total capacitance is given by: d / (ε A) = d₁ / (ε₁ A) + d₂ / (ε₂ A) + ...

CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR

It consists of two coaxial cylinders of radii a and b with the outer

conductor earthed. The dielectric constant of the medium between the

cylinders is ε.

The capacitance per unit length is: C = (2 π ε) / ln(b / a)

118
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

(1) Capacitors in Series​

​ ​ ​ ​

All capacitors carry the same charge Q, but potential differences differ:1 / Ceq = 1 / C₁ + 1 / C₂ +

1 / C₃ + …

(2) Capacitors in Parallel​

​ ​ ​ ​

Each capacitor has the same potential difference V, but charges differ: Ceq = C₁ + C₂ + C₃ + ...

ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR

For capacitance C, charge Q, and potential difference V, the energy stored is:

U = (1/2) C V² = Q² / (2 C) = (1/2) Q V

This energy is stored in the electrostatic field in the dielectric between the plates.

119
Heat Produced in switching in capacitive circuit

Heat produced when a switch is closed:

Work done by battery to charge capacitor: W = C V² = Q V

SHARING OF CHARGES

●​ When two charged conductors with capacitances C₁ and C₂ at potentials V₁ and V₂ are

connected, charges flow until potentials equalize.

●​ The common potential V after sharing: V = (C₁ V₁ + C₂ V₂) / (C₁ + C₂)

●​ Charges after sharing: q₁ = C₁ V, q₂ = C₂ V

𝐶1𝐶2 2
●​ Energy lost as heat in the connecting wire: ∆𝑈 = 2(𝐶1+𝐶2)
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)

ATTRACTIVE FORCE BETWEEN CAPACITOR PLATES:

2 2
𝑄 ϵ𝐴𝑉
𝐹 = 2ϵ𝐴
= 2
2𝑑

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Charging:q = q₀ (1 - e(-t / RC))

120
Discharging: q = q₀ e(-t / RC) where q₀ = C V, R is resistance, and t is time.

KEY POINTS

●​ The energy of a charged conductor resides outside it in its electric field, while in a

capacitor it is stored within the dielectric medium.

●​ The energy of an uncharged capacitor is zero.

●​ Capacitance depends only on size, geometry, and dielectric, not on conductor material.

●​ Conductors carrying the same charge can be at different potentials if their sizes differ.

●​ When charged by a battery, both capacitor plates have equal and opposite charges,

regardless of plate size.

●​ Filling the space between capacitor plates with a dielectric increases capacitance by

reducing potential for the same charge.

●​ The potential of a grounded object is taken as zero because Earth's capacitance is very

large.

121
122
CURRENT ELECTRICITY AND HEATING EFFECTS OF CURRENT

ELECTRIC CURRENT

●​ When potential difference (voltage) is applied, charge carriers (electrons) flow with a

constant drift velocity (vd).

●​ Current direction is along positive charge flow or opposite to electron flow.

●​ Current I = n × q × A × vd where, n = number density of electrons, q = charge of

electron, A = cross-sectional area, vd = drift velocity

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

●​ Current (I) is the rate of charge flow: I = Q / t (where Q is charge in coulombs, t is time in

seconds)

●​ If current varies: I = dQ / dt

●​ Current density J = I / A (vector in current flow direction)

●​ Total current crossing area S: I = ∫ J · dS

RELATION BETWEEN J, E, AND V

●​ Drift velocity v_d is proportional to electric field E: vd = μ × E (μ = mobility of electrons)

●​ Current density: J = n × q × vd = n × q × μ × E = σ × E (σ = conductivity = n × q × μ)

●​ Resistivity ρ = 1 / σ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ Electric field E = ρ × J

123
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

●​ Resistance (R) opposes current flow.

●​ Depends on conductor length (L), cross-section area (A), temperature, and material.

●​ R ∝ L / A ⇒ R = ρ × (L / A) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (ρ = resistivity)

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE

Resistance at temperature T: R = R₀ × (1 + α × T) (α = temperature coefficient of resistance,

per °C or K)

If α negative, resistance decreases with temperature.

Similarly, resistivity: ρ = ρ₀ × (1 + α × T)

CONDUCTANCE

Conductance G = 1 / R​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Unit: Siemens (S) or mho

OHM’S LAW

●​ Current proportional to voltage: V = I × R

●​ Valid for metallic conductors.

KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS

●​ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): Sum of currents entering a junction = sum leaving ⇒

Σ Iin = Σ Iout

124
 ●​ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Sum of voltage rises and drops around any closed loop

= 0 ⇒ Σ Voltage = 0

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Resistors in Series

●​ Resistors connected end-to-end. Current same through all.

●​ Equivalent resistance: Req = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + …

●​ Total Voltage:V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃ + ... + V

●​ Voltage Division Rule: Voltage across a resistor is proportional to its resistance: V₁ / R₁ =

V₂ / R₂ = ... = V / (R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + ... + R )

125
 Resistors in Parallel

●​ Voltage across each resistor is the same.

●​ Total current: I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃ + ... + I

●​ Effective resistance: 1 / R = 1 / R₁ + 1 / R₂ + 1 / R₃ + ... + 1 / R

●​ Current Distribution: Current is inversely proportional to resistance:

I₁ / I = R / R₁, I₂ / I = R / R₂, ...

Conductance (G): G = 1 / R So: G = G₁ + G₂ + G₃ + ... + G

EMF and Internal Resistance of a Cell

If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected to external resistance R, then:

●​ Total resistance = R + r

●​ Current: I = E / (R + r)

●​ Terminal voltage (VAB): VAB = IR

Special Cases:

If r → 0, then V → E (ideal cell). ​ ​ ​ ​ Maximum current when r = R

126
Grouping of Cells

Cells in Series

Let n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, be

connected in series: Total emf = nE

●​ Total internal resistance = nr

●​ Current:I = nE / (R + nr)

Use in Series if: nr << R → I ≈ nE / R

Avoid Series if: nr >> R → I ≈ E / r

Cells in Parallel

Let m cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, be connected in parallel:

●​ Effective emf = E

●​ Internal resistance = r / m

●​ Current: I = E / (R + r/m)

Use in Parallel if: mR << r → I ≈ mE / r

Avoid Parallel if: mR >> r → I ≈ E / R

127
Cells in Mixed Grouping (Multiple Arc)

Let:n cells in each row, m such rows. Then:

●​ Total emf = nE

●​ Internal resistance = nr / m

●​ Current: I = nE / (R + nr/m)

For maximum current: nr/m = R

So, optimal configuration occurs when: mR = nr

Wheatstone Bridge

●​ At balance point (null deflection): (P / Q) = (R / S)

⇒ No current through the galvanometer.

●​ If PS > QR ⇒ VC < VD and If PS < QR ⇒ VC > VD

Key Points:

●​ Null point unaffected by G or E

●​ Switching G and E does not affect balance

128
Metre Bridge At balance:

P / Q = L / (100 - L) ⇒ R / S = L / (100 - L)

Ammeter

●​ Measures current

●​ Connected in series

●​ Galvanometer + Shunt resistor (parallel)

●​ Ideal ammeter has zero resistance

●​ Shunt value (S): S = (Ig × Rg) / (I - Ig)​ where, Ig = max current through galvanometer,

Rg = resistance of galvanometer, I = max current through ammeter

Voltmeter:

●​ Measures voltage

●​ Connected in parallel

●​ Galvanometer + High resistance (series)

●​ Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance

129
Electrical Power: P = V × I

●​ If current enters higher potential: power is consumed

●​ If current enters lower potential: power is supplied

●​ Other forms: P = I²R, P = V² / R

Joule’s Law of Heating: Heat (H) = I²Rt. Energy lost as heat in resistor due to current. In

variable current case: H = ∫ I² R dt (from t = 0 to T)

●​ 1 calorie = 4.2 joules

●​ 1 unit of energy = 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

Bulbs in Series and Parallel

●​ Series: 1 / Ptotal = 1 / P₁ + 1 / P₂ + ...

●​ Parallel: Ptotal = P₁ + P₂ + ...

Key Concepts

●​ Current flows only if electric field exists inside a conductor.

●​ Outside electric field of current-carrying wire is zero.

●​ Resistance causes heating because of inelastic collisions between electrons and lattice.

●​ Ohm’s law is valid only for low current.

●​ Potentiometer is ideal for measuring small potential differences.

130
●​ Ammeter: connected in series (low resistance)

●​ Voltmeter: connected in parallel (high resistance)

131
 MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic Effects of Current

●​ A static charge produces only an electric field.

●​ A moving charge produces both an electric field and a magnetic field. Both fields can

exert forces on it.

●​ A current-carrying conductor produces only a magnetic field, which can exert a force on

other magnetic or moving electric charges.

Biot–Savart Law

The magnetic field dB produced by a small current element Idl at a distance r is given by:

dB = (μ₀μᵣ / 4π) × (Idl × r̂ ) / r² or, dB = (μ₀μᵣ / 4π) × (Idl × r) / r³

Where, μ = permeability of the medium = μ₀μᵣ, μ₀ = permeability of free space = 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m,

μᵣ = relative permeability (dimensionless)

Magnetic Induction Due to a Moving Charge:

dB = (μ₀qv sinθ) / (4πr²) or, ​ ​ ​ in vector form: dB = (μ₀ / 4π) × (q(v × r)) / r³

132
Magnetic Induction in Various Current Configurations

Straight Conductor

●​ General: B = (μ₀I / 4πR) × (sinα₁ + sinα₂)

●​ Very long wire: B = μ₀I / (2πR)

●​ Semi-infinite wire: B = μ₀I / (4πR)

133
 Circular Coil

●​ At center: B = (μ₀NI) / (2R)

●​ On the axis at distance x from the center:​

B = (μ₀NIR²) / [2(x² + R²)³ᐟ²]

●​ Maximum at center:​

B = (μ₀NI) / (2R)

Flat Circular Arc: B = (μ₀Iθ) / (4πR)

Solid Cylindrical Conductor of Radius R

●​ For r ≥ R: B = μ₀I / (2πr)

●​ For r < R: B = (μ₀Ir) / (2πR²)

Solenoid: B = μ₀nI, along the axis​ ​ Where n = number of turns per unit length

Toroid: B = μ₀nI, where n = N / (2πR)

134
Current-Carrying Sheet: B = (1/2)μ₀I

Thick Sheet

●​ At point P₂ (outside): B = (1/2)μ₀Jd

●​ At point P₁ (inside): B = μ₀Jx ​ ​ ​ Where J is the current density.

Earth’s Magnetism (Gilbert's Model)

Magnetic Meridian

A vertical plane passing through the magnetic north-south

direction.

Magnetic Dip (θ) tanθ = Bᵥ / Bₕ

Where, B = Total magnetic field, Bᵥ = Vertical component = Bsinθ, Bₕ = Horizontal component

= Bcosθ

Declination The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian.

Ampere’s Circuital Law: ∮ B · dl = μ₀ΣI

Where ΣI is the algebraic sum of all enclosed currents.

135
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

(a) Parallel to B:

●​ Motion is straight line

●​ F = 0

(b) Perpendicular to B:

●​ Circular motion

●​ Radius: R = mv / qB

●​ Angular velocity: ω = qB / m

●​ Force: F = qvB

(c) At an angle θ to B:

●​ Helical path

●​ Radius: Rₖ = (mv sinθ) / qB

●​ Pitch: Pₕ = (2πmv cosθ) / qB

●​ Force: F = qvB sinθ

Lorentz Force

A charge q moving with velocity v in an electric field E and magnetic field B experiences force:

F = q(E + v × B)

This is known as the Lorentz Force.

136
Motion of Charge in Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields

●​ When v is parallel to B and v is parallel to E, motion is uniformly accelerated in a straight

line, because Fmagnetic = 0 and Felectrostatic = qE. The particle either speeds up or slows

down.

●​ When v is parallel to B and v is perpendicular to E, motion is uniformly accelerated along

a parabolic path.

●​ When v is perpendicular to B and v is perpendicular to E, the particle may move

undeflected at constant speed if v = E/B. This is called the velocity-selector condition.

Magnetic Force on a Straight Current-Carrying Wire

●​ If a wire of length L (in the direction of current I) lies in a uniform magnetic field B, then

the magnetic force on that wire is: F = I (L × B)

●​ In general, for any shaped conductor carrying current, F = ∮ (I (dl × B))​

where the integral sums over the wire length.

Magnetic Interaction Force Between Two Parallel Long Straight Currents

When two long, straight, parallel conductors carry currents I₁ and I₂, they exert a force on each

other:

○​ Repulsion if currents are anti-parallel (opposite directions)

○​ Attraction if currents are parallel (same direction)

●​ The magnitude of the force per unit length on either conductor is: F/L = μ₀ I₁ I₂ / (2π r)​

where r is the distance between the two conductors.​

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Magnetic Torque on a Closed Current Circuit

●​ A plane, closed current loop of N turns and area A, carrying current I, placed in a uniform

magnetic field B, experiences a torque τ given by: τ = N I (A × B) = M × B = (B I N A)

sinθ​

where, A is the area vector (outward normal to the loop), B is the magnetic field

induction, M = I A is the magnetic moment of the loop (vector), θ is the angle between A

and B

●​ Note: This expression holds only if B is uniform over the loop area.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

●​ A moving coil galvanometer consists of a plane coil of many turns suspended in a radial

magnetic field.

●​ When current I pass through the coil, it experiences a torque that twists the suspension.

Since torque is proportional to angle of twist θ: N I A B = K θ, where K is the torsional

constant of the suspension.

●​ The resulting deflection angle is proportional to the torque. Define the galvanometer

constant C as:I = (K / (N A B)) θ, so C = K / (N A B).

Force Experienced by a Magnetic Dipole in a Non-Uniform Magnetic Field

●​ If a magnetic dipole of moment M is placed in a non-uniform field B, the magnitude of

force is: |F| = M (dB / dx)​

where dB/dx is the gradient of the field along the dipole axis.

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Force on a Random Shaped Conductor in a Uniform Magnetic Field

●​ Magnetic force on any closed loop in a uniform B is zero (net force cancels).

●​ A wire of any arbitrary shape under uniform B experiences a force as if only the segment

joining two points A and B (endpoints) were present. In effect, you can replace the actual

loop by a straight segment from A to B when calculating net force.

Magnetic Moment of a Rotating Charge

●​ A charge q rotating with angular speed ω in a circle of radius R has an equivalent

current: I = (q ω) / (2π)

●​ Its magnetic moment is: M = I (π R²) = (1/2) q ω R²

●​ Note: The ratio of magnetic moment to angular momentum for such a uniformly charged,

rotating object is a constant, independent of shape: M / L = q / (2m)

Magnetic Dipole

●​ If a magnet has pole strength m (north pole and south pole separated by distance 2ℓ), its

magnetic moment is: M = m × (2ℓ)

●​ Magnetic field along the axial line (end-on) of a dipole at distance r from the center:​

µ0 2𝑀
Baxial = 4π 3
𝑟

●​ Magnetic field at the equatorial line (broadside) of a dipole at distance r:

µ −𝑀
Bequatorial = 4π0 3
𝑟

●​ In general, at point (r, θ) from dipole center, the field magnitude is:​

µ 𝑀 2
B = 4π0 3 (1 + 3cos θ)
𝑟

139
Magnetic Potential

µ 𝑀cosθ
●​ The magnetic potential of a dipole of moment M at a point (r, θ) is: V = 4π0 2
𝑟

Torque & Potential Energy of a Dipole in a Uniform Field

Torque on a dipole in uniform B: τ = M × B

●​ Potential energy of a dipole in uniform B: U = − M · B

Magnetic Properties of Materials

●​ Intensity of Magnetization: I (also called M) = magnetic moment per unit volume = M /

●​ Magnetic Induction (B): B = μ₀ (H + I) = μ H, where μ = μ₀ μᵣ and H is the magnetizing

field.

●​ Magnetic Permeability (μ): μ = B / H

●​ Magnetic Susceptibility (χₘ): χₘ = I / H = μᵣ − 1

Curie’s Law & Curie - Weiss Law

●​ Curie’s Law (paramagnetic materials): χₘ ∝ 1 / T

●​ Curie–Weiss Law (ferromagnetic materials above Curie temperature TC):

χₘ ∝ 1 / (T − TC)

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KEY POINTS

●​ A charged particle moving perpendicular to B has constant kinetic energy but changing

momentum, because magnetic force acts perpendicular to velocity.

●​ To rotate a unit north pole around a current-carrying wire, work must be done since

magnetic field produced by current is non-conservative.

●​ In a conductor, free electrons move randomly; average thermal velocity is zero, so net

magnetic force on the conductor is zero.

●​ Magnetic force between two moving charges is generally much smaller than electrostatic

force, because v ≪ c. In fact: Fmagnetic / Felectric = v² / c²

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic Flux

●​ For uniform magnetic field: φ = B ⋅ A = BA cosθ

●​ For non-uniform magnetic field: φ = ∫ B ⋅ dA

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

1.​ An induced emf is set up whenever the magnetic flux linking that circuit changes.

2.​ The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of

magnetic flux linking the circuit: ε ∝ dφ/dt

Lenz’s Law

The direction of an induced emf is always such that it opposes the cause producing it.

Law of EMI: e = – dφ/dt ​ (The negative sign shows opposition to change in flux.)

EMF Induced in a Straight Conductor in Uniform Magnetic Field: E = BLv sinθ

Where, B = magnetic flux density, L = length of the conductor, v = velocity of the conductor, θ =

angle between velocity and magnetic field

EMF in a Rod Rotating Perpendicular to Magnetic Field

If a rod of length ℓ rotates in a magnetic field B, the induced emf is: E = (1/2) B ω ℓ²

For a wheel rotating in Earth's magnetic field, effective emf induced between the periphery and

center: E = (1/2) B ω ℓ²

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Coil Rotation in Magnetic Field (Axis ⊥ Field)

Instantaneous induced emf: e = N A B ω sin(ωt) = E₀ sin(ωt)

Where N = number of turns, A = area of the coil, B = magnetic induction, ω = angular velocity,

E₀ = maximum emf

Self Induction and Self Inductance

When current through a coil changes, the flux linking its own winding changes, producing an

emf called self-induced emf.​

This property is called self-inductance.

●​ Coefficient of self-inductance: L = φ / i or φ = L i

●​ Self-induced emf: e = – dφ/dt = – L di/dt

Combination of Inductors

Series combination: L = L₁ + L₂ + … ​ ​ i = same ​ V ∝ L​ φ ∝ L​ U∝L

Parallel combination: 1/L = 1/L₁ + 1/L₂ + ... V = same i ∝ 1/L U ∝ 1/L φ = same

Mutual Induction

If two circuits are magnetically linked, change in current in one induces emf in the other.

●​ Mutual inductance: M = φm / Ip

●​ Mutually induced emf: Em = – dφm/dt = – M di/dt

●​ For coils with self inductance L₁ and L₂: M = K√(L₁L₂) (K = coupling constant)

143
Special Cases:

●​ Same direction: L = L₁ + L₂ + 2M

●​ Opposite direction: L = L₁ + L₂ – 2M

●​ In parallel: L = (L₁L₂ – M²) / (L₁ + L₂ ± 2M)

Transformer

●​ For ideal transformer: E₂ / E₁ = N₂ / N₁ = I₁ / I₂

●​ Efficiency: η = (Pout / Pin) × 100%

Solenoid

A uniform magnetic field exists along the axis of a solenoid.

●​ B = μ n i (μ = permeability, n = turns per unit length, i = current)

●​ Self inductance of solenoid: L = μ₀ n² A l​

(A = cross-sectional area, l = length)

Superconducting Loop in Magnetic Field

If R = 0 and ε = 0, total flux remains constant: φtotal = constant

Energy Stored in an Inductor W = (1/2) L i²

Energy of Interaction (Mutual Inductance) U = I₁ φ₂ = I₂ φ₁ = M I₁ I₂

Growth of Current in L–R Circuit: i(t) = (E/R)(1 – e(–Rt/L))

●​ Time constant: τ = L/R

●​ Initial current: I₀ = E/R

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Decay of Current in L–R Circuit: i(t) = I₀ e(–Rt/L)

Key Points

●​ Induced emf is non-conservative. The line integral ∮E⋅dl ≠ 0.

●​ Falling magnet through solenoid faces opposition due to induced current.

●​ Doubling inductance doubles mutual inductance: M ∝ √(L₁L₂)

●​ Bulbs often fuse due to surge emf during switching.

●​ Motional emf: E = Beff ℓeff v (Where ℓeff is the effective length perpendicular to velocity and

magnetic field)

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT AND EM WAVES

• Average value: Iavg = (1/T) ∫₀ᵗ i dt

• RMS value Irms = √[(1/T) ∫₀ᵗ i² dt]

• For sinusoidal voltage V = V₀ sin ωt : Vavg = (2V₀) / π and Vrms = V₀ / √2

• For sinusoidal current I = I₀ sin(ωt + ϕ) : Iavg = (2I₀) / π and Irms = I₀ / √2

AC Circuits

1.​ Resistor (R) only: V = V₀ sin ωt , I = (V₀ / R) sin ωt ⇒ I and V are in phase.

2.​ Inductor (L) only: V = V₀ sin ωt, I = (V₀ / ωL) sin(ωt - π/2) ⇒ I lags V by 90°.

3.​ Capacitor (C) only: V = V₀ sin ωt, I = V₀ωC sin(ωt + π/2) ⇒ I leads V by 90°.

4.​ Impedance Z = √(R² + X²), where X = reactance

Series LCR Circuit

●​ V = V₀ sin ωt

●​ Z = √[R² + (XL − XC)²]

⇒ Impedance triangle: So, V = √[VR² + (VL − VC)²]

Power Factor

Power Factor = cosϕ = R / Z​

At resonance: XL = XC ⇒ Z = R, V = VR

146
LC Oscillation

q = q₀ sin(ωt + θ), I = I₀ cos(ωt + θ), where I₀ = q₀ω​

Energy = (1/2) L I² + (q² / 2C) = (q₀² / 2C) = (1/2) L I₀² = constant

Comparison with SHM: q → x, I → v, L → m, C → 1/K

Comparison of Damped Mechanical & Electrical Systems

(I) Series LCR circuit: V = V₀ sin ωt

Differential equation: d²q/dt² + (R/L)(dq/dt) + (1/LC) q = (V₀ / L) cos ωt

Compare with mechanical system: d²x/dt² + (b/m)(dx/dt) + (k/m) x = (F₀ / m) cos ωt​

where b = damping coefficient

Mechanical System Electrical System (Series RLQ)

Displacement (x) Charge (q)

Driving force (F) Driving voltage (V)

Kinetic energy (½mv²) (½)(dq/dt)² = (½)L I²

Potential energy (½kx²) Energy of static charge = q² / 2C

Mass (m) Inductance (L)

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 Power = Fv Power = VI

Damping (b) Resistance (R)

Spring constant (k) 1/C

Maxwell’s Equations

●​ ∮𝐄·d𝐒 = q / ε₀​ ​ ​ ​ (Gauss’s law for electricity)

●​ ∮𝐁·d𝐒 = 0​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Gauss’s law for magnetism)

●​ ∮𝐄·d𝐥 = − dΦB/dt​ ​ ​ ​ (Faraday’s law)

●​ ∮𝐁·d𝐥 = μ₀ [Ic + ε₀ (dΦE/dt)]​​ (Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction)

Key Points:

●​ An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz becomes zero 100 times in one second,

because AC changes direction and becomes zero twice in a cycle.

●​ An alternating current cannot be used to conduct electrolysis because ions, due to their

inertia, cannot follow the changing electric field.

●​ Average value of AC is always defined over half cycle because over a complete cycle it

is always zero.

●​ AC current flows on the periphery of the wire instead of through the total volume — this

is known as the skin effect.

148
 ​ ​ RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Laws of Reflection:

●​ The incident ray (AB), the reflected ray (BC), and the normal (NB) to the surface (SS') at

the point of incidence (B) lie in the same plane. This plane is called the plane of

incidence (also plane of reflection).

●​ The angle of incidence (angle between the normal and the incident ray) and the angle of

reflection (angle between the normal and the reflected ray) are equal:

∠i = ∠r

In vector form: r̂ = ê − 2 (ê ⋅ n̂) n̂

OBJECT:

●​ Real: Point from which rays actually diverge.

●​ Virtual: Point towards which rays appear to converge.

IMAGE:

●​ The image is formed by reflected or refracted rays only.

●​ For mirrors, a real image is where rays reflected from the mirror actually converge.

●​ A virtual image is where reflected rays appear to diverge.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLECTION BY A PLANE MIRROR:

●​ The size of the image is the same as the object.

●​ For a real object, the image is virtual, and for a virtual object, the image is real.

●​ For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror is rotated by an angle θ, the reflected ray turns

through an angle 2θ in the same sense.

Number of Images (n) in Inclined Mirror: n = (360 / θ) − 1, where θ = angle between mirrors

●​ If n is even → n = m − 1, for all positions of the object.

●​ If n is odd →​

• n = m, if the object is not on the bisector​

• n = m − 1, if the object is on the bisector

●​ If n is a fraction → nearest even number.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS:

●​ Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror: Spherical mirrors with inward and outward curvature,

respectively.

PARAXIAL RAYS:

Rays making very small angles with the principal axis. All formulae are valid only for paraxial

rays.

SIGN CONVENTION:

●​ Origin is at the pole of the mirror.

●​ Incident rays are along the positive x-axis.

150
 ●​ Vertical upward is the positive y-axis.

●​ All distances are measured from the pole.

Note:

●​ Radius of curvature and focus of concave mirror are negative.

●​ Radius of curvature and focus of convex mirror are positive.

MIRROR FORMULA: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u

Where f = focal length, u = x-coordinate of object, v = x-coordinate of image (Valid only for

paraxial rays)

TRANSVERSE MAGNIFICATION: m = h₂ / h₁ = −v / u

●​ h₂ = y-coordinate of image

●​ h₁ = y-coordinate of object

Longitudinal magnification (m₂): m₂ = (Length of image) / (Length of object)

For small objects: m₂ = −m₁², where m₁ = transverse magnification

VELOCITY OF IMAGE OF MOVING OBJECT (SPHERICAL MIRROR)

When an object moves toward a concave mirror from infinity: 1/v + 1/u = 1/f

1 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝑢
Differentiating: 2 𝑑𝑡
+ 2 𝑑𝑡
= 0 ⇒ v̇M = −(v² / u²) × v̇OM = − m² × v̇OM
𝑣 𝑢

Where v̇M = velocity of image w.r.t mirror, v̇OM = velocity of object w.r.t mirror

151
NEWTON’S FORMULA:

Applicable to a real object and real image:​

If X₁ and X₂ are distances of real object and real image from principal focus: X₁ × X₂ = f2

OPTICAL POWER:

Optical Power (in Diopters) = 1/f​ Where f is focal length (in meters with sign)

REFRACTION – PLANE SURFACE

Laws of Refraction:

(i) Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in the same plane.

Vector form: (ê × n̂) ⋅ r̂ = 0

(ii) Refractive index and sine of the angle are constant:​

μ₁ sin i = μ₂ sin r (Snell's Law)

In vector form: μ₁ |ê × n̂| = μ₂ |r̂ × n̂|

Snell’s Law in ratios: Sin i / Sin r = n₂ / n₁ = v₁ / v₂ = λ₁ / λ₂

Note: Frequency remains unchanged during refraction.

DEVIATION OF A RAY DUE TO REFRACTION

Angle of deviation δ = i − r

152
REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB:

●​ The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray (if the medium is same on both sides).

●​ If the media are different, rays are not parallel.

Lateral shift (x): x = [t sin(i − r)] / cos r, where t = thickness of slab

Apparent Depth of Submerged Object h′ < h

For near normal incidence: h′ = (μ₂ / μ₁) × h

Apparent shift: Δx = t × (1 − 1/μ) ​​ ​ Direction: always along the incident ray

Note: h and h′ are measured from the surface.

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

●​ Ray must go from a denser to a rarer medium.

●​ Angle of incidence i > C (Critical angle).

Critical Angle (C): C = sin⁻¹(μR / μD) = sin⁻¹(vD / vR) = sin⁻¹(λD / λR)

Refraction Through Prism

Angle of deviation: δ = (i + i′) − (r + r′) and r + r′ = A

Minimum Deviation (δₘ): Occurs at symmetrical incidence: i = i′ and r = r′

𝑠𝑖𝑛[(𝐴 + δ )/2]
Then: n = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴/2)

Note: When prism is in another medium, n is R.I. relative to that medium.

Thin Prism (A ≤ 10°): δ = (n − 1)A

153
Dispersion of Light

●​ White light splits into components on refraction.

●​ This angular splitting is called Dispersion.

●​ Angle of Dispersion (θ): θ = δV − δR (between extreme colors)

Angular Dispersion (ω): ω = δB − δR Deviation of mean ray = δY

Combination of Two Prisms

Achromatic Combination:

●​ Produces deviation without dispersion.

●​ Condition: (nV − nR)A = (n′V − n′R)A′ ⇒ Net mean deviation = 0

Direct Vision Combination:

●​ Produces dispersion without deviation.

●​ Net angle of dispersion: (nV − nR)A − (n′V − n′R)A′

For Small Angled Prism: ω = δB − δR = (nV − nR)A and n = (nV + nR) / 2

Refraction at Spherical Surface

(a) μ₂ / v − μ₁ / u = (μ₂ − μ₁) / R

(b) m = μ₁ v / μ₂ u

154
Lens Formula

(a) 1/f = 1/v − 1/u​

(b) 1/f = (μ − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂)​

(c) m = v/u

Power of Lenses

●​ P = 1/f (in meters)

●​ P = 100/f (in cm)

●​ SI Unit: Dioptre (D)

Combination of Lenses

When two thin lenses are placed in contact:

Power of combination: P = P₁ + P₂ ⇒ 1/F = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂

Newton’s Formula: f = √(x₁ × x₂)​

Where, x₁ = distance of object from focus, x₂ = distance of image from focus

Displacement Method

Used to determine the focal length f of a convex lens by placing it between an object and a

screen fixed at a distance D apart.

(i) For D < 4f: No real image possible (u will be imaginary)

(ii) For D = 4f: u = D/2, only one position possible v = D − u = D − D/2 = D/2 ⇒ u = v = 2f

155
(iii) For D > 4f: Two lens positions possible:​

u₁ = [D − √(D² − 4fD)] / 2​

u₂ = [D + √(D² − 4fD)] / 2

So, u₁ + u₂ = D, v₁ = D − u₁, v₂ = D − u₂

Magnification:

●​ m₁ = I₁ / O = v₁ / u₁ = (D + x) / (D − x)

●​ m₂ = I₂ / O = v₂ / u₂ = (D − x) / (D + x)

●​ m₁ × m₂ = 1 ⇒ O² = I₁ × I₂

Silvering of One Surface of Lens

Use: Peq = 2P₁ + P₂

• Plane surface silvered: F = R / [2(μ − 1)]

• Convex surface silvered: F = R / (2μ)

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Simple Microscope

●​ Image at D: MP = 1 + D/f

●​ Image at infinity: MP = D/f

Compound Microscope

Magnifying Power (MP): MP = (−v₀ / u₀) × (D / ue)

●​ Image at D: MP = (−v₀ / u₀)(1 + D/fe) and Tube length: L = v₀ + |ue|

156
 ●​ Image at infinity: MP = (−v₀ / u₀) × (fe), L = v₀ + fe

Astronomical Telescope: MP = −f₀ / ue

●​ Image at D: MP = −(f₀ / fe)(1 + fe / D) and Tube length: L = f₀ + |ue|

●​ Image at infinity: MP = −f₀ / fe, and L = f₀ + fe

Terrestrial Telescope: MP = f₀ / fe and L = f₀ + f_e + 4f

Galilean Telescope: MP = f₀ / fe and L = f₀ − fe

Lens Camera

●​ Time of exposure ∝ 1 / (aperture)²

●​ f-number = focal length / aperture

For Myopia (Short-sightedness): 1/F.P. − 1/object = 1/f = P and f = −F.P.

For Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness) 1/N.P. − 1/object = 1/f = P

Limit of Resolution

●​ Microscope: 1 / (2a sinθ) = 1.22λ / resolving power

●​ Telescope: 1 / a = 1.22λ / resolving power

KEY POINTS

●​ Convex mirrors are preferred for traffic as they offer a wider field of view.

●​ Incident ray along normal retraces path.

●​ Mirrors do not show chromatic aberration.

●​ TIR-based images are brighter due to no energy loss.

●​ Fish appear taller from outside due to refraction.

157
●​ Fish at depth sees circular view of world (radius): r = h tanθC = h / √(μ² − 1)

●​ The Sun appears elliptical near the setting due to atmospheric refraction.

●​ Lenses may have different focal lengths due to differing media on each side.

●​ Convex lens behaves like concave in a rarer-to-denser transition.

●​ Partial black covering affects sharpness of objects.

●​ Sun glasses use surfaces with the same curvature but opposite directions to cancel

power.

158
 WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

Huygen’s Wave Theory:

●​ Proposed in 1678: Light propagates in the form of waves.

●​ Every point on a wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets.

●​ The secondary wavelets travel in all directions with the speed of light.

●​ The new wavefront is the envelope of secondary wavelets.

●​ In a homogeneous medium, the wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of

propagation.

Types of Wavefront:

●​ Plane wavefront (from distant source)

●​ Spherical wavefront (from point source)

Coherent and Incoherent Sources

●​ Coherent Sources: Same frequency and constant phase difference.

●​ Incoherent Sources: Different frequency or varying phase difference with time.

Interference (Young's Double Slit Experiment - YDSE)

●​ Resultant Intensity (Coherent): I = I₁ + I₂ +

2√(I₁I₂) cosϕ₀

●​ Resultant Intensity (Incoherent): I = I₁ + I₂

●​ Fringe Brightness & Intensity

Proportionality: I ∝ (Amplitude)² ⇒ I₁/I₂ =

a₁²/a₂²

159
 ●​ Fringe Positions:

○​ Bright Fringe: x = nλD / d

○​ Dark Fringe: xₘ = (2m + 1)λD / 2d

○​ Fringe width (β): β = λD / d

○​ Angular fringe width: β / D = λ / d

●​ Fringe Visibility:

V = (Imax − Imin) / (Imax + Imin) × 100%

●​ Optical Path Shift (with transparent sheet): Shift = D(μ − 1)t / d = β(μ − 1)t / λ

Key Points

●​ Energy is conserved in interference.

●​ Fringes are loci of constant path difference.

●​ With two different wavelengths: n(βlonger) = (n + 1)(βshorter)

●​ Total maxima = 2nmax + 1, where nmax = d / λ

Fraunhofer Diffraction:

●​ Minima: a sinθ = nλ

●​ Maxima: a sinθ = (2n + 1)(λ/2)

●​ Width of central maxima: Wc = 2λD / a

●​ Angular width: Wθ = 2λ / a
β
sin 2 2
●​ Intensity of Maxima: I = 𝐼𝑜( β/2
)

Polarization​

Brewster’s Law: μ = tanθp, where θp is Brewster’s angle.​

160
At this angle, reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular.​

Malus' Law: I = I₀ cos²θ

161
 MODERN PHYSICS

Cathode Rays:

●​ Produced in high vacuum tubes with potential difference (10–15 kV).

●​ Consist of electrons.

●​ K.E. = (1/2)mv² = p² / 2m

●​ Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

●​ Speed of EM wave in vacuum: c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s = νλ

●​ Range:

○​ Radio waves (10⁴ Hz) to Gamma rays (10²⁰ Hz)

○​ Visible spectrum: violet (3.6 × 10⁻⁷ m) to red (7.6 × 10⁻⁷ m)

Planck’s Quantum Theory

●​ Light consists of particles (photons).

●​ Energy of photon: E = hv = hc/λ ⇒ E = 12400 / λ (in Å)

●​ Effective Mass of Photon: m = E/c² = h / cλ

●​ Momentum of Photon: p = E/c = h/λ

Intensity of Light: I = E / At = P / A

Where, P = power of source, A = area, t = time, E = Nhν, N = number of photons

162
From above: n = N/t = number of photons/sec and n = (Pλ) / (hc)

Radiation Pressure

Perfectly Reflecting Surface: F = (2hν / λ) = 2P/c and Pressure = 2I / c

Perfectly Absorbing Surface: F = P / c and Pressure = I / c

●​ At angle θ: Reflecting: F = 2IA cos²θ / c , Absorbing: F = IA cosθ / c

Photoelectric Effect: Emission of electrons when light of certain frequency hits metal.

Key Results:

●​ Explained only by quantum theory.

●​ Electrons are ejected only if frequency ≥

threshold ν₀.

●​ Threshold wavelength: λ₀

●​ Number of emitted electrons ∝ intensity of

incident light.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: hν = KEmax + ϕ

Where ϕ = work function, KEmax = maximum kinetic energy

Stopping Potential (Vcutoff): eV = KEmax

Note: Number of emitted electrons per unit time = photon flux

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Wave Nature of Matter

Beams of electrons and other forms of matter exhibit wave properties like interference and

diffraction. The de Broglie wavelength is given by: λ = h / p

Where, h = Planck’s constant, p = momentum of the particle

De Broglie Wavelength (Moving Particles) If a particle of mass m moves with velocity v:

●​ Kinetic Energy: E = (1/2)mv² = p² / 2m

●​ Momentum: p = mv = √(2mE)

●​ Wavelength: λ = h / p = h / √(2mE)

De Broglie Wavelength for Charged Particles

●​ Electron: λₑ = 12.27 × 10⁻¹⁰ / √V = 12.27 / √V Å, where V = accelerating voltage

●​ Proton: λₚ = 0.286 / √V Å

●​ Deuteron: λd = 0.202 / √V Å

●​ α-Particles: λα = 0.101 / √V Å

Atomic Models

1.​ Thomson’s Model (Plum Pudding Model)

○​ Uniform distribution of positive charge.

○​ Electrons are embedded like plums.

○​ Failed to explain large-angle α-particle scattering.

2.​ Rutherford’s Model (Nuclear Model)

○​ The nucleus is small, positively charged, and holds most mass.

○​ Electrons orbit in circular paths.

164
 ○​ Failed to explain atomic stability (spiral collapse problem).

3.​ (c) Bohr’s Atomic Model

Bohr added quantized angular momentum:

○​ Stable orbits: mvr = nh / 2π, n = 1, 2, 3…

○​ Energy exchange: Occurs only during jumps between levels.

○​ Emission/Absorption: E = hν

For Hydrogen Atom (Z = 1):

○​ Angular Momentum (Lₙ): L = nh / 2π

○​ Radius (rₙ): r = 0.529 × n² Å

○​ Energy (Eₙ): E = −13.6 eV / n²

○​ Binding Energy (B.E): B.E = −E = 13.6 eV / n²

○​ Transition Energy: E₂ − E₁ = 13.6 eV × [1/n₁² − 1/n₂²] ⇒ ΔE = hν

Spectral Series

Wave Number Formula:1/λ = R[1/n₁² − 1/n₂²]​ ​ (R = 1.097 × 10⁷ m⁻¹ for hydrogen)

●​ Radius for hydrogen-like atom: r = (0.529 Å) × n² / Z

●​ Energy for hydrogen-like atom: E = −13.6 × Z² / n² eV (Include μ for

reduced mass if needed)

Spectral Series (by Landing Orbit n₁)

●​ Lyman Series (n₁ = 1) → Ultraviolet, ν̅ = R[1/1² − 1/n₂²], n₂ > 1

165
 ●​ Balmer Series (n₁ = 2) → Visible, ν̅ = R[1/2² − 1/n₂²], n₂ > 2​

●​ Paschen Series (n₁ = 3) → Near IR, ν̅ = R[1/3² − 1/n₂²], n₂ > 3

●​ Bracket Series (n₁ = 4) → Mid IR, ν̅ = R[1/4² − 1/n₂²], n₂ > 4

●​ Pfund Series (n₁ = 5) → Far IR, ν̅ = R[1/5² − 1/n₂²], n₂ > 5

Special Lines and Transition Count

●​ For transition from n to 1 state: Total lines = n(n−1)/2

●​ From n to m state: Total lines = (n−m)(n−m+1)/2

Excitation and Ionization

●​ Excitation Potential: E₂ − E₁ / e

●​ Ionization Energy of H-atom: 13.6 eV

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 ●​ Ionization Potential: E /e

X-Rays

●​ Produced by bombarding metal targets with high-speed electrons.

●​ Short wavelength: 0.1 Å – 10 Å

●​ Used in photoelectric and fluorescence effects.

Key Equations:

●​ E = hν = eV

●​ νₘ = maximum frequency

●​ λₘ = minimum wavelength

X-Rays and Nuclear Physics

Characteristic X-rays

●​ Cutoff (minimum) wavelength: λmin = 12400 / V Å (V in volts)

●​ Continuous spectrum is due to deceleration of electrons.

●​ For Kα line: λ = h / (EK − EL)

●​ For Kβ line: λ = h / (EL − EM)

Moseley’s Law:

Frequency of characteristic line: √ν = a(Z − b)

Where Z = atomic number, a = proportionality constant, b = screening constant

(K: b = 1; L: b = 7.4)

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Corrected Bohr Model for many-electron atoms:

●​ ΔE = 13.6(Z − b)² [1/n₁² − 1/n₂²] eV

●​ ν = Rc(Z − b)² [1/n₁² − 1/n₂²]

●​ 1/λ = R(Z − b)² [1/n₁² − 1/n₂²]

Diffraction of X-Rays (Bragg's Law):

Bragg’s Law: 2d sinθ = nλ

●​ d = interplanar spacing

●​ θ = diffraction angle

●​ λmax = 2d (for sinθ = 1, n = 1)

If λ > 2d, diffraction is not possible.

Key Points

●​ Binding energy = Total Mechanical Energy

●​ Velocity of electron in nth orbit (hydrogen): v = c / 137n

●​ Lower limit of wavelength = series limit

Nuclear Collisions

General Form: a + X → Y + b​ ​ ​ (bombarding particle + target → products)

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Laws Applied:

1.​ Conservation of momentum

2.​ Conservation of charge

3.​ Conservation of mass–energy

Energy Conservation: K₁ + K₂ + (m₁ + m₂)c² = K₃ + K₄ + (m₃ + m₄)c²

Q-Value: Q = (K₃ + K₄) − (K₁ + K₂) = ΣKproducts − ΣKreactants

●​ If Q > 0 → reaction releases energy

●​ If Q < 0 → reaction absorbs energy

Q = ΣB.E.products − ΣB.E.reactants

Nuclear Fission

●​ Splitting of heavy nucleus (A > 230) into lighter nuclei: A + p → B + C + Q

Nuclear Fusion

●​ Combining light nuclei into a heavier nucleus: A + B → C + Q

●​ Mass Defect: Δm = (mA + mB) − mC, Energy released: E = Δm × 931 MeV

⇒ ΔE = EC − (EA + EB)

Radioactivity

Types of Decay:

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 ●​ α-decay: emission of α-particles; decreases mass and atomic number.

●​ β-decay: neutron ↔ proton conversion.

●​ γ-decay: no change in composition; photon emitted.

Energy of γ-ray ≈ 100 keV

Laws of Radioactive Decay:

Rate of decay: dN/dt = −λN ⇒ N = N₀e(−λt)

Alternate form: log(N₀/N) = (λ/2.303) × t

Decay Constants:

●​ Half-life (t₁/₂): t₁/₂ = ln2 / λ

●​ Average life (tw): tw = 1 / λ

Units:

●​ 1 Bq = 1 disintegration/sec

●​ 1 Curie = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq

●​ 1 Rutherford = 10⁶ Bq

After n Half-Lives: Remaining nuclei: N = N₀ / 2ⁿ

Probability of survival at time t: N/N₀ = e(−λt)

Parallel Radioactive Disintegration

If A decays to B and C: dNA/dt = −(λ₁ + λ₂)NA

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⇒ Effective decay constant: λeff = λ₁ + λ₂ ⇒ teff = t₁t₂ / (t₁ + t₂)

Radioactive Disintegration with Successive Production

If production rate = α, and decay rate = λ: dNA/dt = α − λNA, When dNA/dt = 0 ⇒ NA(max) = α / λ

So: NA = (α/λ)(1 − e(−λt))

Equivalence of Mass and Energy E = mc² & 1 u = 1.66 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 MeV

Binding Energy of XA : BE = Δmc² = [Z m_H + (A − Z) m_n − m_X]c²

Q-value of Nuclear Reaction Q = (MA + MX − MY − Mb)c²

Radius of Nucleus: R = R₀ × A(1/3) Where R₀ ≈ 1.3 fm = 1.3 × 10⁻¹⁵ m

From Bohr Model:

●​ n₁ = 1, 2, 3... → K series

●​ n₂ = 2, 3, 4... → L series

●​ n₃ = 4, 5, 6... → M series

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 SEMICONDUCTOR AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Comparison: Conductor, Semiconductor, Insulator

Property Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Resistivity 10⁻² – 10⁻⁸ Ωm 10⁻⁴ – 10³ Ωm 10⁷ – 10¹⁴ Ωm

10⁻¹¹ – 10⁻⁸
Conductivity 10² – 10⁸ mho/m 10⁻⁴ – 10³ mho/m
mho/m

Temperature
Positive Negative Negative
coefficient

Current Free electrons Electrons & holes No current

Large gap (≥3

Energy band No gap Small gap (≈1 eV)
eV)

Examples Cu, Al, Ag Si, Ge, GaAs Diamond, Mica

Number of Electrons from Valence Band to Conduction Band: n = AT3/2 × e(−Eg / 2kT)

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Classification of Semiconductors

●​ Intrinsic Semiconductor: Pure form (Si, Ge) nₑ = nₕ = nᵢ

●​ Extrinsic Semiconductor: Doped with impurity

○​ N-type: Pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb) → donor → nₑ ≫ nₕ

○​ P-type: Trivalent impurity (Ga, B, In) → acceptor → nₕ ≫ nₑ

Mass-Action Law: nₑ × nₕ = nᵢ²

●​ For N-type: nₑ ≈ ND

●​ For P-type: nₕ ≈ NA

Conductivity: σ = nₑeμₑ + nₕeμₕ

Biasing in Diodes

Forward Bias:

●​ Barrier reduces

●​ Depletion width decreases

●​ Current flows (mA level)

●​ Resistance: Rf ≈ 100Ω

●​ Voltage: Ge ≈ 0.3 V, Si ≈ 0.7 V

Reverse Bias:

●​ Barrier increases

●​ Depletion width increases

●​ Leakage current (μA or nA)

●​ Resistance: Rr ≈ 10⁶Ω

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 ●​ Breakdown voltage: Ge ≈ 25 V, Si ≈ 35 V

Rectifiers

1. Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR)​

2. Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier​

3. Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier (FWR)

●​ Form Factor:

○​ HWR: π / 2

○​ FWR: π / 2√2

●​ Ripple Factor:

○​ HWR: 1.21

○​ FWR: 0.48

●​ Efficiency (η): η = Pdc / Pac

○​ HWR: η = 40.6 / (1 + Rf/RL)

○​ FWR: η = 81.2 / (1 + Rf/RL)

Transistors

Types:

●​ NPN and PNP

●​ Configurations: CB, CE, CC

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 Parameter CB CE CC

Input Resistance Low (100 Ω) High (750 Ω) Very High (750

kΩ)

Output Resistance Very High High Low

Current Gain α β = IC / IB γ = IE / IB

Voltage Gain Av = α × RL / Ri Av = β × RL / Ri Av = γ × RL / Ri

Power Gain Ap = α² × RL / Ri β² × RL / Ri γ² × RL / Ri

Phase Difference Same Opposite Same

Application High Frequency Audio Frequency Impedance

Matching

Relation: β = α / (1 − α), γ = 1 / (1 − α), γ = 1 + β

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Logic Gates

Gate Logic Expression

OR A+B

AND A×B

NOT A̅

NOR A̅ · B̅

NAND A̅ + B̅

XOR A ⊕ B = A̅B + AB̅

XNOR AB + A̅ B̅

De Morgan’s Theorems

1.​ A + B = A̅ · B̅

2.​ A · B = A̅ + B̅

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Truth Table Properties:

Operation Identity

OR A + 0 = A, A + 1 = 1

AND A · 0 = 0, A · 1 = A

NOT A̅ · A = 0, A̅ + A = 1

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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Faithful transmission of information from one place to another is called communication.

Basic Components of a Communication System:

1.​ Information Source

2.​ Transmitter: Converts message into electrical signal

3.​ Channel: Medium (e.g., wire, fibre, air) for transmission

4.​ Receiver: Reconstructs the original message

5.​ User of Information

Important Terms

●​ Transducer: Converts one form of energy into another (e.g., microphone,

photo-detector).

●​ Signal: Electrical form of information; can be analog or digital.

○​ Analog Signal: Continuous variation (e.g., voltage between −5V and +5V)

○​ Digital Signal: Discrete levels (e.g., 0 and 1)

Other Key Terms

●​ Noise: Unwanted signals disturbing communication

●​ Attenuation: Loss in signal strength during transmission

●​ Amplification: Increasing signal amplitude using an amplifier

●​ Range: Maximum distance of signal reception

●​ Repeater: Receives, amplifies, retransmits the signal (e.g., satellite repeater)

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Bandwidth

(i) Bandwidth of Signals

Signal Frequency Range Bandwidth Required

Speech 300–3100 Hz ~2800 Hz

Music ~20 kHz ~20 kHz

Picture — 4.2 MHz

TV — 6 MHz

(ii) Bandwidth for Digital Signals

Composed of rectangular waves → infinite harmonics (v₀, 2v₀, 3v₀, …).

Practical systems neglect higher harmonics.

Bandwidth of Transmission Media

Service Frequency Range Remarks

Wire (coaxial cable) ~750 MHz Operates below 18 GHz

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 Free space (radio waves) 540 kHz – 42 GHz Includes AM, FM, TV,

mobile

AM 540 – 1600 kHz Standard AM

FM 88 – 108 MHz High quality

TV 54–420 MHz VHF, UHF

Cellular 896–935 MHz Mobile base to station

Satellite 5.925–6.425 GHz Communication uplink

Optical Fiber 10⁶ GHz+ (100 THz) Very high bandwidth

Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation (500 kHz – 1500 kHz)

●​ Travels along Earth's surface

●​ Vertical polarization prevents short circuiting

●​ Used for local/medium range broadcast

●​ Attenuated due to surface energy loss

●​ Effective only for f ≤ 2 MHz

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 Sky Wave Propagation (2 MHz – 30 MHz)

●​ Reflects from ionosphere (shortwave)

●​ Effective for long-distance communication

●​ f > 30 MHz escapes Earth’s atmosphere

●​ Critical Frequency: fc = 9 √N (N = electron density/m³)

Space Wave Propagation (30 MHz – 300 MHz)

●​ Direct line-of-sight or ground reflection

●​ Also called tropospheric propagation

●​ Used in TV, FM, satellite communication

Range of space wave propagation: d = √2Rh (R = Earth's radius, h = antenna height)

Line of Sight Range: dM = √2RhT + √2RhR Where hT = transmitting antenna height, hR =

receiving antenna height

MODULATION

Modulation is the process of superimposing an information signal onto a high-frequency carrier

wave by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase angle.

Types of Modulation

Continuous Wave Modulation

●​ AM (Amplitude Modulation)

●​ FM (Frequency Modulation)

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 ●​ PM (Phase Modulation)

Pulse Wave Modulation

●​ PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

●​ PTM (Pulse Time Modulation)

○​ PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

○​ PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)

●​ PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

Need for Modulation

(i) To avoid interference

●​ Prevents overlapping of signals in a common transmission channel.

(ii) To design practical-size antennas

●​ Antenna height is inversely proportional to frequency (h = λ/4).

●​ Lower frequencies require impractically tall antennas.

(iii) To increase power radiation by antenna

●​ Power ∝ frequency².

●​ High-frequency signals ensure efficient radiation.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

●​ Modulation Factor: m = Vₘ / Vc

Where, Vₘ = amplitude of modulating wave, Vc = amplitude of carrier wave

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AM Wave Expression: v = [Vc(1 + m cos ωₘt)] cos ωct = Vc cosωct + (mVc / 2)[cos(ωc + ωₘ)t

+ cos(ωc − ωₘ)t]

Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave:

●​ Contains:

○​ Carrier: Vc

○​ Sidebands: mVc/2 each

●​ Total Power of AM Wave: Ptotal = Pc(1 + m²/2)

●​ Sideband Power: Psidebands = (m²/2)Pc

●​ Carrier Power: Pc = Vc² / 2R

Frequency Modulation (FM)

●​ Frequency of carrier changes with modulating signal.

Modulation Index: m = Δf / fₘ​

Δf = frequency deviation​

fₘ = modulating frequency

FM Signal Expression: vFM = Vc cos[ωct + mf cosωₘt]

Carrier Swing (CS): CS = 2Δf

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Comparison: AM vs FM

Aspect AM FM

Amplitude Constant Varies

Bandwidth Large Small

Equipment Complex Simple and cheap

Coverage Area Small Large

Noise Sensitivity High (can use limiter) Hard to eliminate

Power Utilization Full wave power useful Only modulated power is

useful

Average Power Same as carrier Higher than carrier

Modulation Index Limit No limit m ≤ 1 (otherwise

distortion)

Multi-transmitter Use Possible Not possible

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MODEM

●​ Modulator + Demodulator device for digital signals over analog channels.

FAX (Facsimile Telephony)

●​ Used to reproduce and transmit documents electronically across distances.

185
 RELATIVITY

Relativity primarily deals with how measurements of time, length, and mass vary for observers in

different frames of reference, especially when dealing with velocities close to the speed of light.

Frame of Reference

●​ Inertial Frame: A frame moving with constant velocity; Newton’s laws hold.

●​ Non-inertial Frame: Accelerated frame; fictitious forces are observed.

Galilean Transformation (Classical Mechanics)

Used in Newtonian mechanics for low-speed scenarios (v ≪ c).

Transformation equations (for two frames S and S′):​

If S′ moves with velocity v along x-axis relative to S:

●​ x′ = x − vt

●​ y′ = y

●​ z′ = z

●​ t′ = t

Limitation: Doesn’t hold at speeds comparable to the

speed of light.

Einstein’s Postulates of Special Relativity

1.​ Laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.

2.​ Speed of light in vacuum is constant (c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s) in all inertial frames, regardless of the

motion of the observer or source.

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Lorentz Transformations

Applicable when velocity is comparable to the speed of light.

If frame S′ moves with velocity v relative to S in x direction:

●​ x′ = γ(x − vt)

●​ y′ = y

●​ z′ = z

●​ t′ = γ(t − vx / c²)

Where, γ = 1 / √(1 − v²/c²) is the Lorentz factor.

Length Contraction

Moving objects appear shorter along the direction of motion.

L = L₀ √(1 − v²/c²)

Where L₀ = proper length (in rest frame), L = length in moving frame

Time Dilation

Moving clocks tick slower. t = to / √(1 − v²/c²)

Where, t₀ = proper time (measured in the moving clock’s frame), t = time observed from the

stationary frame

Relativity of Simultaneity

Two events simultaneous in one frame may not be simultaneous in another moving frame.

187
Velocity Addition Formula

If a particle moves with velocity u′ in S′ and S′ moves at velocity v with respect to S, then:

𝑢'+𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑢'𝑣 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (for motion along same line)
(1+ 2 )
𝑐

𝑢'𝑦
Transverse Component: 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑢'𝑥
𝑦 γ(1+( ))
2
𝑐

Variation of Mass with Velocity

Mass increases with speed: m = m₀ / √(1 − v²/c²) Where m₀ = rest mass, m = relativistic mass

Relativistic Momentum p = mv = m₀v / √(1 − v²/c²)

2 1
Relativistic Kinetic Energy K.E. = (m − m₀)c² = 𝑚𝑜𝑐 ( 2
− 1)
𝑣
(1− 2 )
𝑐

Total EnergyE = mc² = m₀c² / √(1 − v²/c²)

Energy-Momentum Relation E² = p²c² + m₀²c⁴

Special case (massless particle like photon): E = pc

188