Module 1

Science and Scientific Theory

WHAT IS SCIENCE AND NON SCIENCE

Science

Science is the systematic study of structure and behaviour in the physical, natural, and social
worlds, involving the generation, investigation, and testing of hypotheses, the accumulation of
data, and the formulation of general laws and theories.

There are several major branches, including the natural sciences (e.g., biology, physics) and
the social sciences.

The task of psychology has been to take over the problems and questions about human nature
that were its heritage from the prescientific past and seek the answers in the light of modern
science.

Every science grows by theory as well as through the accumulation of factual knowledge.
Indeed, systematizing facts and gathering facts are really complementary processes and the
absence of either leads to confusion and wasted effort. Therefore, both contemporary
psychology and contemporary science in general are an admixture of fact and theory.

Steps in scientific approach:

1. Perceiving the question

2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Testing the hypothesis
4. Drawing the conclusions
5. Reporting results

Science vs Non-science
Despite all these philosophical investigations of science, we haven’t yet had a focused
discussion on what makes science what it is, or what differentiates it from other human
endeavours. We have taken for granted that science is something different – something
unique. But what actually makes science different? What makes it unique? In philosophy this
question has been called the demarcation problem. To demarcate something is to set its
boundaries or limits, to draw a line between one thing and another.

The Falsification Principle, proposed by Karl Popper, is a way of demarcating science from
non-science. It suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific it must be able to be
tested and conceivably proven false. For example, the hypothesis that "all swans are white,"
can be falsified by observing a black swan. For instance, Freudian theories are unscientific as
they are unfalsifiable– they can neither be refuted nor proven true. For example, if an adult is
diagnosed with OCD, Freud may attribute it to the fact that “childhood cleanliness is the
cause”, if the adult is not diagnosed with OCD, he can attribute it to the same fact saying that
childhood cleanliness helped prevent the OCD. It can neither be proven nor refuted.

One main limitation of Karl Popper’s perspective is that theories do not simply evolve from
being refuted. Theories evolve when people propose modifications and alternatives to older
theories.

Historically, many philosophers have sought to demarcate science from non-science. However,
often, their specific focus has been on the demarcation between science and pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience is a very specific subspecies of non-science which masks itself as science.
while not all non-science is pseudoscience, all pseudoscience is definitely non-science.
Characteristics of a scientific theory

The answer to the question of characteristics of a scientific theory does not have a universal
or transhistorical answer as the criterion of demarcation (between science and non-science)
are always changeable. But to define the characteristics of a scientific theory, we need to
study the components of a scientific method:

a. Demarcation Criteria
b. Acceptance Criteria
c. Compatibility Criteria

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Webster dictionary defines a ‘scientific method’ as the principles and procedures for
systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the

i) recognition and formulation of a problem

ii) the collection of data through observation and experiment, and
iii) the formulation and testing of hypotheses

In psychology, researchers try to find the answers to empirical questions. They can use a variety
of research methods depending on the scientific question to be answered.
In psychology, researchers want to see only what is really there, not what their biases might
lead them to see. This can be achieved using the scientific approach, an approach to research
intending to reduce the likelihood of bias and error in the measurement of data.
Psychology’s Goals

Every science has the common goal of learning how things work. The goals specifically aimed
at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior are description, explanation,
prediction, and control. The scientific approach is a way to accomplish these goals of
psychology.

1. Description: What is happening? - Description involves observing a behavior and

noting everything about it: what is happening, where it happens, to whom it happens,
and under what circumstances it seems to happen.
2. Explanation: Why is it happening? - Finding explanations for behavior is a very
important step in the process of forming theories of behavior. A theory* is a general
explanation of a set of observations or facts. The goal of description provides the
observations, and the goal of explanation helps build the theory.
3. Prediction: when will it happen again? - Determining what will happen in the future is
a prediction.
4. Control: How can it ben changed? - The focus of control, or the modification of some
behaviour, is to change a behavior from an undesirable one to a desirable one.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A NON-SCIENCE (FOLK PSYCHOLOGY)

PARADIGMS, THEORIES AND SYSTEMS

1. Paradigm is a model, pattern, or representative example, as of the functions and

interrelationships of a process, a behavior under study, or the like. It is a set of assumptions,
attitudes, concepts, values, procedures, and techniques that constitutes a generally accepted
theoretical framework within, or a general perspective of, a discipline.

In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn argued that a mature science was informed by
a paradigm that unified the field. Kuhn’s discussion of paradigms in other sciences gave
psychologists the opportunity to wonder whether any of the schools should be regarded as
paradigms or whether psychology was preparadigmatic. For example, Kirsch (1977) proposed
that introspectionism was the first paradigm in psychology, followed by behaviorism. Other
psychologists found the paradigm concept less compelling (e.g., Buss, 1978), arguing that
psychology still needed to sort out fundamental methodological and theoretical issues before it
could claim paradigmatic status. Still others thought that a new contender for paradigmatic
status, called cognitive psychology, was emerging.

Cognition has meant different things to different people, but among its central meanings is the
study of the processes whereby we come to understand things. Cognition includes several
different processes, including perception, attention, memory, concepts, language, problem-
solving, decision-making, creativity, and intelligence. Thus, cognitive psychology is not the
study of one thing, but of many.

There are several people who contributed to the emergence of cognitive psychology :

1. George Miller
2. Noam Chomsky
3. Jerome Bruner
4. Herbert Simon

2. System is any collective entity consisting of a set of interrelated or interacting elements

that have been organized together to perform a function. It an orderly method of
classification or procedure.

A psychological system is a way of conceptualizing and organizing the basic phenomena of

psychology. It is similar to what in advanced sciences Kuhn (1962) called a paradigm. Like a
paradigm, a psychological system subsumes under a single umbrella theories that are based on
similar assumptions and use a similar language to describe phenomena. Over the history of
psychology, four distinct systems have emerged: cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioural, and
humanistic psychology.

a) Cognitive psychology - In the cognitive system, features of the external world are
represented in the mind. Two of the most notable European philosophers : Descartes, who
postulated how external stimulation is transmitted through the nervous system, and Kant,
who believed that the world external to the mind is essentially unknowable and beyond our
 ability to conceptualize. Philosophers known as the British empiricists theorized how
representations of external objects or ideas become associated with each other. The
cognitive system was also evident in the early days of scientific psychology, which focused
on conscious- ness as its primary interest. In Europe, Wilhelm Wundt used a form of
introspection to analyze consciousness into its elements, whereas Franz Brentano
advocated an alternative form based on the concept of intentionality (the tendency of
objects of consciousness to point to something beyond). In the United States, William
James emphasized the functional aspects of consciousness. One criticism of the cognitive
system concerns the computer analogy, which seems to require a homunculus to correspond
to the computer user. This introduces the problem of accounting for the cognition of the
homunculus, which leads to an infinite regress. Another criticism is that the cognitive
system does not give much attention to motivation and emotion.

b) Psychodynamic Psychology - The psychodynamic system stresses unconscious or hidden

motivation, which is assumed to be a powerful determinant of such processes as conscious
motivation, perception, memory, psychopathology, and conduct. A precursor of the
psychodynamic system is Plato’s allegory of the soul (psyche) as a chariot pulled by two
powerful horses. Later precursors include: Nietzsche (emphasised on hidden motives that
often underlie our actions) and Brentano (all psychological acts have reference or meaning).
The psychodynamic approach burst on the psychological scene with the writings of
Sigmund Freud. Interestingly, at the time when the majority of scientific psychology was
stressing consciousness as the key to understanding psychological phenomena, Freud
stressed a dynamic unconscious. The motivating force was the libido, which constitutes
sexual motivation broadly conceived. *CRITICMS*

c) Behavioural psychology - Precursors to the behavioral system are found in ancient

writings that do not postulate an inner agent of the body, that is, a mind or soul. These
writings include most of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the New Testament of the
Christian Bible, as well as Buddhist writings. It also includes some writings of the ancient
Greeks, especially those of Aristotle and Theophrastus. More recent precursors of the
behavioral system are Ivan Pavlov and Vladimir Bekhterev, both of whom stressed
conditioned or association reflexes as the fundamental units or constituents of
psychological processes. They measured behavior and did not postulate an inner entity
 (soul or mind) that was distinct from behavior. The primary criticisms of behaviorism are
that behavioral language and rigorous behavioral definitions are too cumbersome to
describe complex mental processes and that they may be too narrow and restrictive to ever
fully capture the most interesting and important properties of the human psyche.
Behaviorists respond that scientific language often seems cumbersome in part because of
its unfamiliarity, but that a precise operational language is necessary in order for a science
to advance.

d) Humanistic psychology – The humanistic system questions traditional Western scientific

methods and theories that neglect the unique significance of human beings. Precursors
occurred during the Renaissance, when Western science began to develop as part of the
growing reaction to the domination of intellectual activities by the Catholic Church. The
emphasis thereby shifted from revealed truth to observation of nature, and from the Divine
to humans as ultimate source of value. Humanistic psychology arose as a reaction to this
domination of behaviorism and psychoanalysis, and for this reason, it was originally called
third-force psychology. he term humanistic psychology was eventually adopted, because
the founders saw the behavioral and psychodynamic systems as tending to be
dehumanizing. When cognitive psychology overtook behaviorism, humanistic
psychologists saw it as being just as mechanistic as behaviorism. The chief criticisms of
humanistic psychology are that it is self-indulgent and value laden and that its rejection of
standard research methodology cannot lead to a science of psychology.

Other potential systems include: neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, positive psychology,

and transpersonal psychology might be considered by some to be psychological systems.
However, none of these approaches provides a distinct language that encompasses all
psychological phenomena of interest.

3. Theory is a principle or body of interrelated principles that purports to explain or predict a

number of interrelated phenomena. It in the philosophy of science, a set of logically related
explanatory hypotheses that are consistent with a body of empirical facts and that may
suggest more empirical relationships.
Psychological theories are fact-based ideas that describe a phenomenon of human behavior.
These theories are based on a hypothesis, which is backed by evidence. Thus, the two key
components of a psychological theory are:

1. It must describe a behavior.

2. It must make predictions about future behaviors.

There are many psychology theories, but most can be categorized as one of four key types.

a) Developmental Theories - Theories of development provide a framework for thinking

about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what
motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful
insight into individuals and society. Developmental theories provide a set of guiding
principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Some
developmental theories focus on the formation of a particular quality, such
as Kohlberg's theory of moral development.8 Other developmental theories focus on
growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development.

b) Grand Theories - Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by
major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson,9 and Jean Piaget. Grand
theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and cognitive
theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but are often
considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and
researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller
theories and recent research as well.

c) Mini-Theories - Mini-theories describe a small, very particular aspect of development.

A mini-theory might explain relatively narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is
formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas
established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of
human behavior and growth.
 d) Emergent Theories - Emergent theories are those that have been created relatively
recently. They are often formed by systematically combining various mini-theories.
These theories draw on research and ideas from different disciplines but are not yet as
broad or far-reaching as grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by Lev
Vygotsky is a good example of an emergent theory of development.

Some of the best-known psychological theories stem from the perspectives of various branches
within psychology. There are five major types of psychological theories.

1. Behavioral Theories - Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory

of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner,
behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth
century.2 Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used by therapists to help clients
learn new skills and behaviors.

2. Cognitive Theories - Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states,

such as motivation, problem-solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. Such
theories strive to explain different mental processes including how the mind processes
information and how our thoughts lead to certain emotions and behaviors.

3. Humanistic Theories - Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity

during the 1950s.4 Some of the major humanist theorists included Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and
psychological problems, humanist theories about behavior instead emphasized the basic
goodness of human beings.

4. Psychodynamic Theories - Psychodynamic theories examine the unconscious

concepts that shape our emotions, attitudes, and personalities. Psychodynamic
approaches seek to understand the root causes of unconscious behavior. These theories
are strongly linked with Sigmund Freud and his followers. The psychodynamic
approach is seen in many Freudian claims—for instance, that our adult behaviors have
their roots in our childhood experiences and that the personality is made up of three
parts: the ID, the ego, and the superego.
5. Biological Theories - Biological theories in psychology attribute human emotion and
behavior to biological causes. For instance, in the nature versus nurture debate on
human behavior, the biological perspective would side with nature. Biological theories
are rooted in the ideas of Charles Darwin, who is famous for theorizing about the roles
that evolution and genetics play in psychology. Someone examining a psychological
issue from a biological lens might investigate whether there are bodily injuries causing
a specific type of behavior or whether the behavior was inherited.

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES