I.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is logic?
Logic may be defined as the science that evaluates arguments. As a science (i.e. organized
body of knowledge), logic has methods and principles. Thus, logic is the study of the methods
and principles used to distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning.
we encounter arguments in our day-to-day experience. We read them in books and newspapers,
hear them in televisions, and formulate them when we communicate with others. The goal of
logic is to develop a system of methods and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating
the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own. Thus, among the
benefits to be expected from the study of logic is an increase in confidence that we are making
sense when we criticize the argument of others and when we advance our own arguments.
The distinction between correct and incorrect reasoning is the central problem with which
logic deals. The logicians’ methods and techniques have been developed primarily for the
purpose of making this distinction clear. All reasoning (regardless of its subject matter) is of
interest to the logician, but the special concern for its correctness is the focus of logic.
1.2 Arguments, premises and conclusions
To define the three terms; argument, premise and conclusion in logic, we must first set forth
and explain some special but basic terms used. These terms include proposition and inference.
Proposition- proposition is the building block of every argument. A proposition can be defined
in the following ways
• a proposition is a declarative statement or sentence.
• It is statement that has truth value (falsity or truthfulness).
• a proposition is a statement that can be asserted or denied
Thus, propositions are either true or false. It is the quality of being true or false that makes
propositions to differ from other forms of sentences or statements such as questions, commands
and exclamations.
It is only propositions that can be either asserted or denied. Questions may be asked and
commands given and exclamations uttered, but none of them can be affirmed; denied, or judged
to be either true or false.
Inference- the term “inference” refers to the process by which one proposition called the
conclusion, is arrived at and affirmed based on one or more other propositions (premises)
accepted as the starting of the process.
Argument- a cluster of propositions with an inference constitutes an argument.
An argument is a group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the other
proposition/proposition, which is /are regarded as providing support or ground for the
truth of that one.
All arguments may be placed in one of two basic groups 1) those in which the premises really
do support the conclusion. 2) Those in which the premises do not support the conclusion even
though they are claimed to. The first are said to be good (correct) arguments while the second
are said to be bad (incorrect) arguments.
Premises
The premise(s) of an argument is/are the preposition(s) in the argument that set forth the
reasons or evidence for the affirmation of the conclusion.
Conclusion
The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is affirmed based on the other
propositions, which are assumed as providing support or reasons for accepting the conclusion
(the premises).
Examples
Propositions
Propositions are typically declarative statements /sentences. Thus, they have truth value (Truth
and falsity) e.g.
1. Chocolate truffles are loaded with calories.
2. Melatonin helps relieve jet lag.
3. Political candidates always tell the complete truth
4. No wives ever cheat on their husbands
5. Tiger woods plays golf and Maria Shara plays tennis
The first two propositions are true; while the 3rd and 4th are false. Thus the truth-value of
the first two propositions true, while the truth –value of the 3rd and 4th propositions is false. The
5th proposition is compound proposition that expresses two propositions both of which are true
(we shall turn to compound proposition later)
The following group of statements/sentences have no truth-value; hence they are not
propositions.
1. Where is Khartoum? (question)
2. Let’s go to a movie tonight (proposal)
3. I suggest you get constant lenses (suggestion).
4. Turn off the TV right now (command)
5. Oh my God! (Exclamation).
Arguments
An example of argument is as follows
All film stars are celebrities
Halle Berry is a film star
Therefore, Halle Berry is a celebrity.
In the above argument, the first two propositions are the premises, while the third proposition
is the conclusion. In this argument, the premises really do support the conclusion, and so the
argument is a good (correct) one.
However, in the following example,
Some film stars are men
Cameron Diaz is a film star
Therefore, Cameron Diaz is a man.
The first two propositions are premises, the third is the conclusion. The premises claim to
support or imply the conclusion. But in the above argument the premises really do not support
the conclusion, even though they claim so. Thus, the argument is not a good one (incorrect).
1.2.1 Conclusion and premise Indicators
One of the most important tasks in the analysis of arguments is being able to distinguish
premises from conclusions. If what is thought to be a conclusion is really a premise, and vice-
versa, the subsequent analysis of an argument cannot be correct. Generally, arguments contain
“indicator words” that provide clues in identifying premises and conclusions.
Some typical conclusion-indicators are; therefore, wherefore, hence, thus, so, accordingly,
in consequence, consequently, proves that, as a result, for this reason, it follows that, we may
infer, I conclude, which shows that, which means that, which entails, which implies that, which
allows us to infer that, which points to the conclusion that etc
Whenever a proposition follows one of these indicator words/phrases, it is usually identified
as the conclusion. By the process of elimination, the other propositions in the argument are
premises. E.g.
Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve their pain. Consequently, torture is
not a reliable method for interrogation.
The conclusion of this argument is “torture is not a reliable method of interrogation” and the
premise is “tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve their pain”.
Some typical premise indicators are; since, as indicated by, because, for, in that, may be
inferred from, as, given that, seeing that, for the reason that, in as much as, owing, follows
from, as shown by, may be derived from, may be deduced from, in view of the fact that, etc.
Any proposition following one of these indicators is usually identified as a premise e.g.
Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs
can jeopardize the development of the fetus.
The premise of this argument is “the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the
fetus”, and the conclusion is “Expectant Mothers should never use recreational drugs”.
1.2.2 The order of premises and conclusion
The order in which premises and conclusions are stated is not significant from the point of view
of logic. However, commonly the premises are stated first, and then follows the conclusion.
E.g.
The secretary general has taken a position that the United Nations can do nothing
unless both parties to a dispute agree. He has thus transferred the veto power vested in
the five permanent members of the Security Council to every intransigent state.
i). It is also very common that the conclusion appears first (in the first sentence) before the
premises (that comes second) e.g.
The food and drug administration should stop all cigarette sales immediately. After all,
cigarette smoking is the leading preventable cause of death.
ii). Sometimes and often, the premise and the conclusion are stated in the same sentences. An
example of one-sentence argument is as follows:
Because many are rightly concerned about the troublesome state of affairs that
currently exist between police forces and black Americans, it is understandable to look
to the legal system for help in addressing the problem.
iii). Sometimes the conclusion precedes the premise in a one-sentence argument. For example
Every law is an evil, for every law is an infraction of liberty.
iv). Sometimes arguments are presented in the manner in which reasons are offered to persuade
to perform a specified action. Though the conclusion may be expressed as an imperative or
command. Eg
Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore, get wisdom
and
Neither a borrower, nor a leader be; for loan often loses both itself and friend.
NB; here to the command may either precede or follow the reason (or reason) offered to
persuade the hearer. When arguments offer several premises in support of their conclusions,
those premises in support of their conclusions, those premises may be given numbers, or letters,
or they may be enumerated.
v). The conclusion of the argument is sandwiched between different premises offered in its
support. E.g.
The real and original source of inspiration for the Muslim thinkers was the Quran and
the sayings of the Holy Prophet. It is therefore clear that the Muslim philosophy was
not a carbon copy of Greek thought, as it concerned itself primarily and specifically
with those problems which originated from and had relevance to Muslims.
1.2.3 Recognizing arguments
Logic basically deals with arguments. Thus, it is important to be able to distinguish
arguments from non-arguments. Generally, a passage contains an argument if it purports to
prove something. If it does not do so, then it doesn’t contain an argument. There are two
conditions to be fulfilled for a passage to purport to prove something.
i) At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reasons.
ii) There must be a claim that the alleged evidence supports or implies something that is, a
claim that something follows from the alleged evidence or reasons.
Statements that claim to present evidence are premises and the statement that the
evidence is claimed to support or imply is the conclusion. The first condition expresses a
factual claim, and deciding whether it is fulfilled falls outside the domain of logic. The second
condition expresses an inferential claim it is what the domain of logic is concerned with.
The inferential claims are simply the claim that a passage expresses a certain kind of
reasoning process, which something supports or implies something follows from something.
The inferential claim is an objective feature of the argument grounded in language structure.
Otherwise it is not equitable to the intentions of the arguer; since intention is subjective and as
such cannot be evaluated since it is inaccessible.
There are two forms of inferential claims, namely; explicit and implicit inferential claim.
i). Explicit inferential claim
It is usually asserted by premise or conclusion indicator words (thus, since, because etc.) e.g.
Mad cows disease is spread by feeding parts of infected animals to cows, nd
this practice has yet to be completely eradicated. Thus, mad cow diseases
continue to pose threat to people who eat beef.
ii). Implicit inferential claim
It exists if there is an inferential relationship between statements in a passage, but the passage
contains no indicator words.
Arguments and propositions
A proposition by itself is not an argument. A proposition is said to be true or false ,
whereas we describe an argument as valid or invalid. Other terms used to describe an argument
are; correct /incorrect, sound /unsound, demonstrative, plausible/fallacious. We define
argument as a group of propositions one of which is called the conclusion is claimed to be true
on the basis the other propositions called premises –which are asserted as providing reason for
accepting the conclusion. Not every group of propositions is an argument. It is only when one
of them is inferred from the rest.
Arguments and explanations.
We have understood that although every argument contains several propositions, not
every passage in which there are several propositions contain an argument. For an argument to
be present one of those asserted propositions (conclusion) must be claimed to follow from the
other propositions (premises).
This claim may be explicit (by the use of premise indicators or conclusion-indicators) or
implicit. In some argument, indicators such as; since, because connote premises. E.g.
1. Since kleo graduated from medical school, her income is probably very high.
2. Since kleo graduated from medical, there have been many changes in medical
technique.
The first is an argument in which the word since indicates the premises. The second is
not an argument at all. In the second the word since has temporal rather than logical
significance. What it asserts is that, many changes in medical techniques developed after kleo
graduated from medical school, without the slightest suggestion that there is any evidential
connection between her graduation and those changes.
Consider another assertion;
Therefore, the name of the tower is called Babel; because the lord did there confound
languages of all the earth”.
The word because here doesn’t indicate a premise since what follows after it is not evidence,
or ground, reason. For believing that Babel was indeed the name of the tower. The word
because here points to an explanation of giving the name Babel to the tower.
