Unit-2

Analog & Digital

Electronics
3rd Semester
Electrical Engineering
2.1 Compare active filter and passive filter
Active Filter Passive Filter
It uses active devices like It uses passive devices like
1
Transistor, Op. Amps. etc. Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.
Frequency is response more Frequency is response less
2
sharper sharper.
3 More expansive Less expensive
4 More complex Less complex
5 More sensitive Comparatively less sensitive
Higher Gain.
6 Also gain is adjustable. Lower Gain
7 High Q factor Low Q factor

2.2 Explain the concept of P, PI and PID controller using Op. Amp. OR
Explain Proportional, Proportional Integral and Proportional Integral
Derivative controller.
Analog Electronics Process Controllers must be capable of providing one or more of
the three main methods of control, namely, Proportional, Integral and Derivative
(i) Proportional Control
The simplest form is the proportional control as shown in figure, which has an
overall voltage gain of

Here Op. Amp. is connected in inverting mode. Hence, for the given circuit

R
V2 = −
R
21

So output voltage is proportional to the input voltage. The value of the

proportional band of the controller is modified by changing the value of
R1 and R2.
(ii) Integral Control
Pure integral action/control is obtained from the circuit shown in figure.
Integral circuit is often used in conjunction with proportional control (two-
term control or PI control) as a means of reducing the steady state deviation
or offset.

(iii) Proportional Integral Control (PI Controller)

Figure shows Proportional Integral control circuit. It is a realistic version of
proportional plus integral controller. The magnitude of the proportional gain
factor is given by R2/R1 and the integral action time is R1C1.

The integral action time of a proportional plus integral controller can best be
explained in terms of the output waveform for a step change in the input
signal shown in figure.

2
 Since the Op. Amp. in figure is connected as inverting amplifier, a negative
step change in input voltage is applied to produce a positive output voltage
change. As soon as the step change is applied, the Proportional action of the
controller causes the output voltage to change suddenly by Y1 volts. The
action of the integrator capacitor then causes the controller output voltage to
begin to rise at a steady rate and it takes a time known as the integral action
time for the output voltage to rise by a further Y1 volts.
(iv) Proportional Derivative Control (PD Controller)
A basic proportional plus derivative controller is shown in figure, the
Proportional action being provided by R1 and R2 , while the derivative action
is provided by capacitor C2 together with R3.

The derivative action time of a P plus D action controller can be explained in

terms of the output waveform of the controller for a ramp/constant change in
input signal, shown in figure.

Since the op-amp is inverting, a negative ramp signal is applied in order to get
a positive going output voltage. As soon as the change in the input signal is
applied, the derivative action of capacitor C2 causes the output voltage to
suddenly change by Y2 volts. The Proportional action to the controller causes
the output voltage to rise at a constant rate, and takes a time known as the
derivative action time for the output voltage to rise by a further Y 2 volts. In
this case, the derivative action time is given by R1C2 of the controller.

4
 (v) Proportional Integral Derivative Control (PID Controller)
The block diagram of a 3-term controller providing P + I + D (PID) control is
shown in figure.

Resistors R1 and R2 provide the basic Proportional control, while capacitor

C1 introduces integral control and capacitor C2 derivative control
2.3 What is the need of frequency compensation network in op. Amp.?
Consider the inverting amplifier circuit and waveforms in figure(a). The signal
voltage (vs) is amplified by a factor R2/R1, and phase shifted through -180°. The
Operational Amplifier Circuit Stability is redrawn in figure(b) to illustrate the fact
that the output voltage (vo) is divided by the feedback network to produce the
feedback voltage (v).

For an ac voltage (v) at the op-amp inverting input terminal in figure(b), the
amplified output is vo = Avv, is as shown. The output is divided by the feedback factor
[B = R1/(R1 + R2)], and fed back to the input. An additional -180° of phase shift can
 occur within the op-amp at high frequencies, and this causes v to be in-phase with
vo, as illustrated. Thus, the feedback voltage can be exactly equal to and in phase
with the voltage (v) at the inverting input. In this case, the circuit is supplying its
own ac input voltage, and a state of continuous oscillation exists.
Because of the feedback network, high-frequency oscillations can occur in many
operational amplifier circuits, and when this happens the circuit is termed unstable.
Methods/techniques used to stabilize Operational Amplifier Circuit are referred to
as frequency compensation techniques.
Assuming that the feedback network is purely resistive, it adds nothing to the loop
phase shift. The loop phase shift is essentially the amplifier phase shift. The phase
shift from the inverting input terminal to the output is normally -180°. But at high
frequencies there may be additional phase shift caused by circuit capacitances, and
the total can approach -360°. When this occurs, the circuit is virtually certain to
oscillate. Most currently-available operational amplifiers have internal
compensating components to prevent oscillations. In some cases, compensating
components must be connected externally to stabilize a circuit.

Graph shows frequency response of uncompensated and compensated Op. Amp.

2.4 Explain Lead/Lag compensator using Op. Amp. OR
Explain frequency compensation network. OR
Explain Phase-Lag and Phase-Lead Compensation
Lag compensation and lead compensation are two Frequency Compensation
methods often employed to stabilize op-amp circuits.
The phase-lag network in figure(a) introduces additional phase lag at some low

no effect. It can be shown that at frequencies where XC1 ≫ R2, the voltage v2 lags
frequency where the op-amp phase shift is still so small that additional phase lag has

v1 by as much as 90°. At higher frequencies where XC1 ≪ R2 no significant phase lag

6
 occurs, and the lag network merely introduces some attenuation. The effect of this
attenuation is that the Av f graph is moved to the left, as illustrated in figure (b).
Thus, the frequency (fx1) at which AvB = 1 [for a given closed-loop gain (A CL)] is
moved to a lower frequency (fx2), as shown. Because fx2 is less than fx1, the phase
shift at fx2 is less than that at fx1, and the circuit is likely to be stable.

The network in figure(c) introduces a phase lead. In this network, when X C1 ≫ R1,
the voltage v2 leads v1. This phase lead cancels some of the unwanted phase lag in
the operational amplifier θf graph as shown in figure(d), thus rendering the circuit
more stable.
Phase-lag and phase-lead networks are both used internally to Frequency
Compensation methods op-amp circuits. Both types of circuit can also be used
externally
2.5 Explain IC Voltage regulators in detail. OR
Explain three terminal voltage regulators in detail.
A Voltage Regulator is a device or a circuit that is responsible for providing a steady
DC Voltage to an electronic load. IC Voltage Regulator uses integrated circuits for
voltage regulation.
Block diagram of a power supply which uses IC regulator is as shown in figure.
Advantages of IC voltages regulators:

(1) The IC voltage regulator is conveniently used for local regulation.

(2) The IC voltage regulator is easy to use.
(3) It is most efficient and reliable.
(4) The IC voltage regulator is versatile.
(5) It is very cheap due to mass production and easily available.
(6) It is compact in size, rugged and light in weight.
(7) The power supply design becomes easy and quick.
(8) It is easily manufactured with features like built in protection, programmable
output, current or voltage boosting, internal protections such as thermal
shutdown, floating operation to facilitate higher output voltage etc.
(9) It has fast transient response.

IC voltage regulators/Three terminal regulator/3-T regulars:

Regulation/regulator circuits in integrated circuit form are most widely used. They
are treated as a single device with associated components. These are generally three
terminal devices that provide a positive or negative output.
IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
- reference source
- comparator amplifier
- control device
- overload protection
The following figure shows the block diagram of three terminal IC regulator.

8
It has three terminals.
(1) Input voltage (Vin)
(2) Output voltage (Vo)
(3) Common terminal (Ground).

Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching regulators are
available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices that provides either
positive or negative output voltages that can be either fixed or adjustable
Fixed voltage regulator:
The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage V i applied to one
input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo from a second terminal, and the
third terminal connected to ground.
Fixed-Positive Voltage Regulator
The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that provide a fixed
positive output voltage.
Some of the fixed positive regulator in 78XX series are given in table.

IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)

7805 +5 +7.3

7806 +6 +8.3

7808 +8 +10.5

7810 +10 +12.5

7812 +12 +14.5

Fixed-Negative Voltage Regulator:

The series 79XX regulators are the three-terminal IC regulators that provide a fixed
negative output voltage.
This series has the same features and characteristics as the series 78XX regulators
except the pin numbers are different.

Some of the fixed negative regulator in 79XX series are given in table.

IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)

7905 -5 - 7.3

7906 -6 - 8.3

7908 -8 - 10.5

7910 - 10 - 12.5

7912 - 12 - 14.5

10
Pin configuration of 78XX and 79XX series regulator

Adjustable-Voltage Regulator:
Voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow to set the
output voltage to a desired regulated value.
The LM317 is an example of an positive adjustable-voltage regulator, can be
operated over the range of voltage from 1.2 to 37 V.

The three terminals are Vin, Vout, and Adjustment(adj).

The LM337 series of voltage regulators are a complement of LM317 series. They are
negative adjustable voltage regulators. These negative voltage regulators are
available in the same voltage and current options as the positive adjustable voltage
regulator LM317.
 Pin configuration of LM317 and LM337 adjustable regulators

Switching-Voltage Regulator:
The switching regulator is more efficient than the linear series or shunt type. This type
regulator is ideal for high current applications since less power is dissipated. Voltage
regulation in a switching regulator is achieved by the on and off action, limiting the
amount of current flow based on the varying line and load conditions. With switching
regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved
In switching regulator, the transistor acts as a switch. When the transistor is off
(switch is open), no current flows, therefore no power dissipation takes place. When
the transistor is on (switch is closed), high current flows but V CE becomes low and
therefore power dissipation is less.

Draw the circuit of differential amplifier using one Op. Amp. and derive the
equation of differential gain (AD).
The differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two input voltages making
this type of operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor.
The basic differential amplifier is shown in figure.
Since there are two inputs Superposition theorem can be used to find the output
voltage.

When, Vb = 0,
then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier, hence the output is due to Va only.

Vo = - V
𝑅1
-----(1)
a a
Similarly
When, Va = 0,
the configuration is a Non-inverting amplifier having a voltage divided network
at the non-inverting input.
𝑅𝑓
V = (1+ ) V------(2)

ob 1
𝑅1
but in equation
(2)
𝑅2
V = ( ) V -----(3)
1 a
𝑅2+ 𝑅3

Substituting the value of V1, in equation (2)

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
V = (1+ ) ( ) V-------(4)
a
𝑅1 𝑅2+ 𝑅3
ob
In equation (4) if R2 = R1 and R3 = Rf then equation (4) can be written as
1+ 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
V = ( ) ( ) V-------(5)
ob a
𝑅1+ 𝑅𝑓
𝑅1
So,
 V = ( ) V---------(6)
ob a
𝑅1
As per Superposition theorem sum of equation (1) and (6) is total output voltage.
𝑹𝒇
𝐕 = (− )(𝐕 − 𝐕 ) (7)
𝐚 𝐛
𝐨 𝑹𝟏
Now, differential Gain can be written as
𝑽𝒐 𝑹𝒇--------
𝐀 = = =− (8)
𝑫
𝑽𝒂− 𝑹𝟏
Input Impedance 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒃
:

Input Impedance at Inverting terminal is

𝐑𝒊𝒇𝒂 = 𝑹𝟏

Input Impedance at Non-Inverting terminal is

𝐑𝒊𝒇𝒃 = 𝑹𝒊 (1 + A𝜷)

𝐑𝒊𝒇𝒂 ≠ 𝑹𝒊𝒇𝒃
Thus, it has been observed that input impedances are not matched,

Which is one of the limitation of Differential amplifier using one Op. Amp.

Draw the Block diagram of Instrumentation System and explain it.

The measurement and control of physical conditions is very important in many
industrial and consumer applications. For example, the operator may make necessary
adjustments in the measurement of temperature or humidity inside a dairy or meat
plant to maintain the product quality, or to produce a particular type of plastic, precise
temperature control of the plastic furnace is needed.
A transducer is generally used at the measuring site to obtain the required information
easily and safely. Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.
For example, when a strain gauge is subjected to pressure or force (physical energy),
the resistance of the strain gauge changes ( electrical energy), i.e. it converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Actually, an instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by
the transducer and mostly used to control the physical condition producing the output
signal.
The simplified form of such an instrumentation system is shown in Figure.
This instrumentation system consists of a type of transducer as the input stage,
depending upon the physical quantity to be measured. The transducers output is fed to
the pre-amplifier. The instrumentation amplifier is the intermediate stage. The output
of the instrumentation amplifier can be connected to various devices, such as
meter, oscilloscope, charts or magnetic recorders.
The lines connecting the various stages, as shown in figure are called the transmission
lines. On the system requirement and the physical quantity to be monitored, the length
of these transmission lines are chosen. These transmission lines permit signal transfer
from unit to unit.
The output of the transducer is the input signal source of the instrumentation amplifier. A
transducer which produces sufficient strength can be used to drive the output device
directly. Most do not produce sufficient output.
Hence, to amplify these low level output signals of the transducer, instrumentation
amplifiers are used which drive the indicator or display unit or output device.
Explain Instrumentation Amplifier in detail. OR
Draw and explain the circuit diagram of Instrumentation Amplifier using
transducer bridge which is consisting of Thermistor in one of it’s arm of bridge.
OR
Explain differential Instrumentation Amplifier with transducer bridge
Simplified circuit of a Differential Instrumentation Amplifier with Transducer Bridge is as
shown in figure.
In this circuit a resistive transducer/Thermistor (whose resistance changes as a function
of some physical energy/Temperature) is connected to one arm of the bridge.
Let RT be the resistance of the transducer and ΔR the change in resistance of the
resistive transducer. Hence the total resistance of the transducer is (RT ± ΔR).
The condition for bridge balance is Vb = Va, i.e. the bridge is balanced when V b = Va, or
when,

The bridge is balanced at a desired reference condition, which depends on the specific
value of the physical quantity to be measured. Under this condition, resistors R A, RB and
RC are so selected that they are equal in value to the transducer resistance R T. (The
value of the physical quantity normally depends on the transducers characteristics, the
type of physical quantity to be measured, and the desired applications.)
Initially the bridge is balanced at a desired reference condition. As the physical quantity
to be measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes, causing the
bridge to be unbalanced (Vb ≠ Va ). Hence, the output voltage of the bridge is a function
of the change in the resistance of the transducer. The expression for the output voltage
V0, in terms of the change in resistance of the transducer is calculated as follows.
Let the change in the resistance of the transducer be ΔR. Since R B and RC are fixed
resistors, the voltage Vb is constant, however, the voltage Va changes as a function of the
change in the transducers resistance.
Therefore, applying the voltage divider rule we have
The output voltage across the bridge terminal is Vab, given by Vab=Va-Vb
Therefore,

The output voltage Vab of the bridge is applied to the Differential Instrumentation
Amplifier through the voltage followers to eliminate the loading effect of the bridge
circuit. The gain of the basic amplifier is (R F/R1) and therefore the output voltage Vo of
the circuit is given by

It can be seen from the above equation that Vo is a function of the change in resistance
ΔR of the transducer. Since the change is caused by the change in a physical quantity, a
meter connected at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of the physical
quantity.
Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier with Transducer Bridge
We shall now consider some important applications of instrumentation amplifiers using
resistance types transducers. In these transducers, the resistance of the transducer
changes as a function of some physical quantity. Commonly used
resistance transducers are thermisistors, photoconductor cells, and strain gauges.
(i) Temperature Indicators Using Thermistor
(ii) Light Intensity Meter
(iii) Analog Weight Scale

Explain Integrator circuit in detail. OR

Draw circuit diagram of Integrator using Op. Amp. and derive the equation of
output voltage. Also draw the output waveform if input is (i) Sine wave and (ii)
Square wave. OR
Draw circuit diagram of Integrator using Op. Amp and explain it with necessary
frequency response and derivations. Also draw practical Integrator circuit.
An integrator is the circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the
input voltage waveform. It can be obtained by replacing feedback resistor by feedback
capacitor in basic inverting amplifier. Input signal, which can be applied at the
inverting terminal i.e. pin – 2 of the op-amp through resistor Rin. A feedback capacitor Cf
is connected between the output terminal i.e. pin – 6 and the inverting terminal i.e. pin –
2 of the op-amp.
The non-inverting terminal i.e. pin – 3 of the op-amp is grounded either directly or
through a resistor which is a parallel combination of input resistor Rin and feedback
resistor Rf. Figure 1 shows Basic Integrator Circuit.

Basic Integrator circuit

The output of the op-amp will then be integrated version of the input.
DESIGN EQUATION : -
Applying KCL at inverting node,
Iin = IB + IF
As input impedance of op-amp is very large, bias current IB =0. Therefore,

Iin = IF = I
The current through resistor R1 can be given as

---- (1)

The current through capacitor can be given as

-----(2)

Because of virtual ground concept VA=VB=0 in equation (1) and (2).

 Now comparing equation (1) and (2)

----(3)
Integrating both sides of equation (3)

---- (4)

---- (5)

Equation (5) indicates that output is integration of input voltage. Hence this circuit will
work as an integrator circuit.
Where Vo(0) is constant of integration and it indicates initial value of output voltage at
time t=0.
Frequency Response of Integrator:
Frequency response is graph relating Gain and Frequency.
𝟏

𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂.
Capacitive reactance Xc =

As frequency is increases, Xc and gain will decreases.

But at low frequency capacitive reactance Xc is high, so gain is very large and circuit
becomes unstable at low frequency input signal. To control the gain at low frequency, a
Resistor Rf is required to be connected in parallel with Cf in practical integrator circuit.
Frequency response of Ideal/Basic integrator and practical integrator circuit is as
shown in figure.
 Frequency Response of Basic & Practical Integrator
PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT:

Practical Integrator circuit

DESIGN:
Frequency at which gain starts decreases is called gain limiting frequency and is given
1
f𝑎
by equation

= 2Π R
f
C f
The frequency at which the gain is 0 dB (Unity) is given by equation
1
f�
=� 2Π R
1
C f
Generally fb = 20 fa
Now selecting standard value of capacitor Cf we can determine the value of R1 and Rf
using equation of fa and fb to design Integrator of particular frequency range.
INPUT & OUTPUT WAVE FORMS : -

Draw the output wave form if unit step input is applied to an integrator as shown
in figure.
Let the input waveform is of step type, with a magnitude of A units as shown in the
figure.
For simplicity of understanding, assume that the time constant R1Cf = 1 and the initial
voltage V0(0) = OV.

Mathematically the step input can be expressed as,

From above equation with RICf = 1 and V0(0) = 0,

Now the output waveform can be drawn as follow:

Thus output waveform is a straight line (negative going Ramp) with a slope of -A where
A is magnitude of the step input. The output waveform is shown in the figure.
Explain Differentiator circuit in detail. OR
Draw circuit diagram of Differentiator using Op. Amp. and derive the
equation of output voltage. Also draw the output waveform if input is (i)
Sine wave, (ii) Square wave and (iii) Triangular wave. OR
Draw circuit diagram of Differentiator using Op. Amp and explain it with
necessary frequency response and derivations. Also draw practical
Differentiator circuit.
The circuit which produces the differentiation of the input voltage at its output is called
Differentiator. The differentiator using an active device like op-amp is called an active
Differentiator. Let us discuss first the operation of Ideal/Basic Differentiator circuit.

The active differentiator circuit can be obtained by exchanging the positions of R and C
in the basic integrator circuit. The op-amp differentiator circuit is shown in the figure.
The node B is grounded. The node A is also at the ground potential because of virtual
ground, hence VA = 0.
DESIGN EQUATION : -
Applying KCL at inverting node,
Iin = IB + IF
As input impedance of op-amp is very large, bias current IB =0. Therefore,

Iin = IF = I1
The current through capacitor C1 can be given as

---- (1)

The current through resistor Rf can be given as

-- - -(2)

Because of virtual ground concept VA=VB=0 in equation (1) and (2).

Now comparing equation (1) and (2)

-----(3)

Hence,---------------------------------------------------------------------------(4)

Equation (4) indicates that output is differentiation of input voltage. Hence this circuit
will work as an differentiator circuit.
Frequency Response of Differentiator:
Frequency response is graph relating Gain and Frequency.
𝟏

𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂.
Capacitive reactance Xc =

As frequency is increases, Xc will decreases and gain will increase.

At low frequency capacitive reactance Xc is high, so gain is low and circuit is stable. But
as the frequency is increasing, Xc will decrease which cause the gain to increase. Thus at
high frequency input signal, circuit becomes unstable.
So, gain is required to be controlled at high frequency. To control the gain at high
frequency, a Resistor R1 is required to be connected in series with input capacitor C 1 in
practical Differentiator circuit. Also a feedback resister R f is to be connected in parallel
with Cf. Frequency response of Ideal/Basic differentiator and practical differentiator
circuit is as shown in figure.

Frequency Response of Basic & Practical Differentiator

PRACTICAL DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT:

Practical Differentiator circuit

DESIGN:
The frequency at which the gain is 0 dB (Unity) is given by equation
1
f𝑎
= 2Π R
f
C 1
Frequency at which gain starts decreases is called gain limiting frequency and is given
by equation
 1
f�
=� 2Π R
1
C 1
Also gain is controlled by Cf and Rf. Hence gain limiting frequency can be given by

1
equation.
f�
=� 2Π Rf
Generally fb = 20 fa C f

Now selecting standard value of capacitor C1 we can determine the value of Cf , R1 and Rf
using equation of fa and fb to design differentiator of particular frequency range.
INPUT & OUTPUT WAVE FORMS : -

Explain Summing, Scaling and Averaging amplifier using Op. Amp.

Figure shows an Summing Amplifier Circuit in inverting configuration with three inputs
Va, Vb, Vc. Depending on the relation between Ra, Rb, Rc and RF, the circuit can be used as
a Summing amplifier, Scaling amplifier or Average amplifier.
Using Kirchoff‘s circuit equation, we have la + lb+ lc= IB + If. But IB ≡ 0 and V1 ≡ V2 ≡ 0
(Virtual ground)
Therefore,
Ia + Ib + Ic = If--------------------------(1)

+ + =
𝑉𝑎−𝑉2 𝑉𝑏−𝑉2 𝑉𝑐−𝑉2
𝑉2−𝑉𝑜 ---- (2)
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑓

As V2 is virtual ground, V2 = 0. Hence equation (2) is

+
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏
+ 𝑜 =
𝑉𝑐
−𝑉
---- (3)

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑓
𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒇 𝑽𝒃 𝑹𝒇
So,
𝐕𝒐 = 𝑽� + 𝑽� + ]
−[
𝒂 𝒄
𝒂 � �� ---- (4)
� �� ��
(i) Summing Amplifier:
In equation (4) if Ra = Rb = Rc = Rf = R then equation (4) is

V𝑜 = −[ V𝑎 + V𝑏 + V𝑐
] ---- (5)
Thus circuit will behaves as Summing Amplifier which gives output that is sum of all
the inputs. It is also called Adder circuit

(ii) Scaling Amplifier:

In equation (4) if Ra ≠ Rb ≠ Rc ≠ Rf then equation (4) is

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝑓
V𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑓 𝑓

[ � ]
𝑅�
𝑎 �
𝑅 𝑅�
---- (6)

Thus circuit will behaves as Scaling Amplifier in which every input is amplified by
different scale/weight. Gain of every input is different.

(iii) Averaging Amplifier:

In equation (4) if Ra = Rb = Rc = R and R = 3Rf then equation (4) is

𝑅
V𝑜 = −𝑓 [ V𝑎 + V𝑏 +
V𝑐 ] 𝑅
--- (7)

V𝑎 + V𝑏 +
V𝑜 = − V𝑐 ]
[
---- (8)

Thus circuit will behaves as Average Amplifier in which output is the average of
three inputs.
Explain Subtractor circuit using Op. Amp.
A subtractor circuit using a basic differential amplifier is as shown in figure.

By selecting the appropriate values for the external resistance, the input signal can be
scaled to the desired value.
As shown in figure, all values of the external resistance are equal, and the gain of the
amplifier is unity.
Therefore, the output voltage of differential amplifier with unity gain.
As we know that output voltage in differential amplifier is

V𝑜 = −𝑅𝑓 [
− V]
V𝑎
𝑅1
But in above circuit Rf = R1 = R2 = R3 =
R

V𝑜 = − [ V𝑎 − V𝑏 ]
Hence,
--- (1)
Thus the output is Subtraction of two input signal. So circuit will behaves as Subtractor circuit.

Explain RC phase shift Oscillator using Op. Amp.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator basically consists of an amplifier and a feedback network
consisting of resistors and capacitors arranged in ladder fashion. Hence such an
oscillator is also called ladder type RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
RC network is used in feedback path. In oscillator, feedback network must introduce a
phase shift of 180° to obtain total phase shift around a loop as 360°. Thus if one RC
network produces phase shift of 60° then to produce phase shift of 180° such three RC
networks must be connected in cascade.
Hence in RC phase shift oscillator, the feedback network consists of three RC sections
each producing a phase shift of 60°, thus total phase shift due to feedback is 180° (3x
60°). Such a feedback network is shown in the figure.
The network is also called the ladder network. All the resistance values and all the
capacitance values are same, so that for a particular frequency, each section of R and C
produces a same phase shift of 60°.
In R-C phase shift oscillator op-amp connected in inverting amplifier mode. Thus it
introduces the phase shift of 180° between input and output. The feedback network
consists of 3 RC sections each producing 60° phase shift. Hence total phase shift around
a close loop is 360°. Such a RC phase shift oscillator using op-amp is shown in the figure.

The output of amplifier is given to feedback network. The Output of feedback network
drives the amplifier. The total phase shift around a loop is 180° of amplifier and 180°
due to 3 RC section, thus 360°. This satisfies the required condition for positive
feedback and circuit works as an oscillator.
The frequency of sustained oscillations generated depends on the values of R and C and
is given by,

The frequency is measured in Hz.

At this frequency the gain of the op-amp must be at least 29 to satisfy loop gain A β = 1.
Now gain of the op-amp inverting amplifier is given by,

Thus circuit will work as an oscillator which will produce a sinusoidal waveform if gain
is 29 and total phase shift around a loop is 360°. This satisfies the Barkhausen criterion
for the oscillator. These oscillators are used over the audio frequency range i.e. about 20
Hz up to 100 kHz.
Advantages
(iv) The circuit is simple to design.
(v) Can produce output over audio frequency range.
(vi) Produces sinusoidal output waveform.
(vii) It is a fixed frequency oscillator.
Disadvantages
(i) phase shift oscillator is fixed frequency oscillator. Frequency cannot be varied.
(ii) Frequency stability is poor.

Explain Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op. Amp,

The Wien Bridge is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used
extensively in circuits for audio applications.
This is also RC oscillator which uses RC type of feedback network. Wien bridge
oscillator uses a non-inverting amplifier. So in Wien bridge type there is no phase
shift necessary through the feedback network.
The two arms of the bridge, namely R1, C1 in series and R2, C2 in parallel are
called frequency sensitive arms. This is because the components of these two arms
decide the frequency of the oscillator.
Such a feedback network is called lead–lag network. .

The resistance R and capacitor C are the components of frequency sensitive arms of the
bridge.
The resistance Rf and R1 form the part of the feedback path. The gain of non inverting
op-amp can be adjusted using the resistance Rf and R1. The gain of op-amp is,

To satisfy Barkhausen criterion that AB=1 it is necessary that the gain of the non
inverting op-amp amplifier must be minimum 3.

Thus ratio of Rf and R1 must be greater than or equal to 2.

The frequency of oscillations is given by,

The feedback is given to the non inverting terminal of op-amp which ensures zero
phase shift.
If in a Wien bridge feedback network, two resistances are not equal i.e. they are R 1 and
R2 while two capacitors are not equal i.e. they are C 1 and C2 then the frequency of
oscillations is given by,
Advantages
(viii) It is stable.
(ix) We can change the frequency very effectively.
(x) The perfect sine wave output is possible.
(xi) It is useful audio frequency range i.e. 20 Hz to 100 kHz.
Disadvantages
(i) The maximum frequency output is limited.

Explain Active Filters.

Active Filters is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band frequencies while
attenuating all the signals outside that band. It is a frequency selective circuit.
The filters are basically classified as active filters and passive filters. The passive filter
networks use only passive elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors. On the
other hand, active filter circuits use the active elements such as op-amps,
transistors along with the resistors, inductors and capacitors. Modern active filters
do not use inductors as the inductors are bulky, heavy and nonlinear. The inductors
generate the stray magnetic fields. The inductors dissipate considerable amount of
power.
Advantages of Active Filters
(xii) Flexibility in Gain and Frequency Adjustment : The op-amp gain can be
easily controlled in closed loop fashion, hence active filter input signal is not
attenuated. The passive filters need the attenuation. The active filters can be
easily tuned.
(xiii) No Loading Effect : The op-amp has high input impedance and low output
impedance. Hence active filter using op-amp does not cause loading of the
source or load.
(xiv) Cost : Due to availability of modern ICs, a variety of cheaper op-amps are
available. The inductors are absent which makes the modern
active filters more economical than passive filters.
The most commonly used filters are:
1) Low Pass (LP) filter
2) High pass (HP) filter
3) Band Pass (BP) filter
 4) Band Reject (BR) filter. This is also called as Band Stop Filter (BS) or Band
Elimination (BE) filter.
5) All Pass filter
Frequency response of Ideal filter:

Each of these filters use op-amp as an active element and resistors and capacitors.
Frequency response characteristics of these types of filters are as follow:

Active Filters Types:

There are basically four useful Active Filters Types.
1. Butterworth
2. Chebyschev
3. Bessel
4. Elliptic
Frequency response of major practical Active Filters
Figure shows the frequency response characteristics of the Active Filters Classification. The
ideal response is shown by the dashed lines, while solid lines indicate the practical
filter response.

First order Law Pass Butterworth Filters.

The Butterworth filter has an essentially flat amplitude versus frequency response up to
the cutoff frequency.
A first order low pass Butterworth filter can be obtained from the Basic Low Pass Filter
Circuit using an RC filter network.
Figure shows a first order low pass Butterworth filter that uses an RC network for
filtering. The op.amp. is used in the non-inverting configuration, which does not load
the RC network. R1 and RF determine the gain of the filter (in this case unity).

Using the voltage divider rule, the voltage across the capacitor, i.e. at the non-inverting
input is

Simplifying, we get

As output voltage

where
Vo/Vin = Gain of the filter as a function of frequency
AF = 1 + RF/R1= pass band gain of the filter
f= frequency of the input signal
fH = 1/2 π RC = high cutoff frequency
The gain magnitude and phase angle can be obtained by applying modulus to

where Φ is the phase angle in degrees.

The operation of the Basic Low Pass Filter Circuit can be verified from the gain
magnitude

Hence the Basic Low Pass Filter Circuit has a constant gain, A F, from 0 Hz to the high
cutoff frequency fH. At fH, the gain is 0.707 AF and after fH the gain decreases at a
constant rate with increase in frequency; when the frequency is increased 10 times
(one decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10. In other words, the gain decreases by 20
db (20 log 10) each time the frequency is increased by 10. Hence the rate at which the
gain rolls off after fH is 20 db/decade or 6 db/octave, where octave signifies a two fold
increase in frequency. The frequency f = fH is called the cutoff frequency.
The procedure of converting a cutoff frequency to a new cutoff frequency is called
frequency scaling.
To obtain a new cutoff frequency, R or C (but not both) is multiplied by the ratio of the
original cutoff frequency to the new cutoff frequency.
In filter design, the values required for R and C are often not standard, and a variable
capacitor C is not commonly used. Hence, we choose a standard value of the capacitor
and then calculate the value of the resistor required for a desired cutoff frequency. This
is because for a non-standing value of a resistor, a potentiometer can be used.

First order High Pass Butterworth Filters.

The Butterworth filter has an essentially flat amplitude versus frequency response up
to the cutoff frequency.
A first order high pass Butterworth filter can be obtained from the Basic high Pass
Filter Circuit using an RC filter network.
Figure shows a first order high pass Butterworth filter that uses an RC network for
filtering. The op.amp. is used in the non-inverting configuration, which does not load
the RC network. R1 and RF determine the gain of the filter (in this case unity).
a high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all the signals below a specified cut off
frequency denoted as fL. Thus, a high pass filter performs the opposite function to that
of low pass filter. Hence, the First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter circuit can be
obtained by interchanging frequency determining resistances and capacitors in low
pass filter circuit.

The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the elements R and C in
a first order low pass filter circuit. The figure shows the first order high pass
Butterworth filter.
It can be observed that as compared to first order low pass filter, the positions of R and
C are changed in the high pass circuit shown in figure.
The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in pass band
(maximum) is called as low cut off frequency, and denoted as fL. So, all the frequencies
greater than fL are allowed to pass but the maximum frequency which is allowed to pass
is determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the op.amp. used.
Analysis of the Filter Circuit
The impedance of the capacitor is

where f is the input i.e. operating frequency.

By the voltage divider rule, the potential of the non inverting terminal of the op.amp. is

Substituting in the above expression of VA,

This can be represented as

Now, for the op-amp in non-inverting configuration,

Hence,

This is the required expression for the transfer function of the filter. For the frequency
response, we require the magnitude of the transfer function which is given by,
Thus, the circuit acts as high pass filter with a pass band gain as A f. For the frequencies,
f < fL, the gain increases till f = fL at a rate of + 20 dB/decade. Hence, the slope of the
frequency response in stop band is + 20 dB/decade for first order high pass filter. The
frequency response is shown in the figure.

Note : As high pass filter is basically a low pass filter circuit with positions of R and C
interchanged, the design steps and the frequency scaling method discussed earlier for
low pass filter is equally applicable to the first order high pass Butterworth filter.

Second order Low Pass Butterworth Filters.

The practical response of Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter must be very close
to an ideal one. In case of low pass filter, it is always desirable that the gain rolls off very
fast after the cut off frequency, in the stop band. In case of first order filter, it rolls off at
a rate of 20 dB/decade. In case of second order filter, the gain rolls off at a rate of 40
dB/decade. Thus, the slope of the frequency response after f = f H is -40 dB/decade, for a
second order low pass filter.
A first order filter can be converted to second order type by using an additional RC
network as shown in the figure.
The cut off frequency fH for the filter is now decided by R2, C2, R3 and C3. The gain of the
filter is as usual decided by op-amp i.e. the resistance R1 and Rf.
The frequency response is shown in figure.

At the cut off frequency fH, the gain is 0,707 Af i,e. 3 dB down from its 0 Hz level. After,
fH ( f > fH ) the gain rolls off at a frequency rate of 40 dB/decade,. Hence, the slope of the
‘response after, fH is – 40 dB/decade.

Second order Low Pass Butterworth Filters.

The second order high pass Butterworth filter produces a gain roll off at the rate of + 40
dB/decade in the stop band. This filter also can be realized by interchanging the
positions of resistors and capacitors in a second order low pass Butterworth filter. The
figure shows the second order high pass Butterworth filter.
The analysis, design and the scaling procedures for this filter is exactly same as that
of second order low pass Butterworth filter.
The frequency response of this filter is shown in the figure.