Introduction

In my daily teaching routine, I observe that learners encounter significant challenges when it
comes to acquiring and utilizing vocabulary in English. Mastery of
vocabulary is essential for conveying meaning and is vital for both receptive skills like listening and
reading, as well as productive skills such as speaking and writing. It serves as a fundamental
component in the journey of learning a foreign language. A student's knowledge of words directly
impacts their ability to comprehend spoken and written language and enhances their
capacity to communicate their thoughts effectively in speech or writing. The broader a student’s
vocabulary, the simpler it becomes for them to associate new terms with those they
are already familiar with. A robust vocabulary boosts performance and self-assurance, supporting the
student in becoming an autonomous learner.
Instructing on vocabulary is a crucial area, involving more than simply showing and
introducing new terms to students. Being familiar with words goes beyond inscribing them on sheets
of paper and recalling them. Just transcribing meanings from a dictionary is not a practical method for
acquiring vocabulary. Passive acquisition is rarely effective. While rote memorization
can be helpful as a short-term strategy for exams, it does not contribute to
mastering a new language. Learners of a foreign language require alternative approaches to grasp
the vocabulary of the language they are studying.
I have chosen “Teaching vocabulary. Communicative activities and games for young learners
and teenagers” because even though learning vocabulary might not be the most thrilling activity for
learners in school, employing engaging and enjoyable methods to introduce vocabulary
can boost students' enthusiasm and assist with both memory and recall. Teaching vocabulary can be
challenging, but integrating enjoyable techniques into the instruction can make the experience more
lively and captivating.
I have divided the paper into three main chapters.
The first chapter evaluates the current research about various techniques and strategies used in
vocabulary instruction, ranging from the Grammar Translation Method and the Audio-Lingual
Method to the Communicative Approach. Particular attention is given to the
theoretical foundations, along with the principles of teaching English vocabulary
and how vocabulary interrelates with the advancement of the four language skills.
The second chapter evaluates the current research about various techniques and strategies
used in vocabulary instruction, ranging from the Grammar Translation Method and the Audio-Lingual
Method to the Communicative Approach. Particular attention is given to the
theoretical foundations, along with the principles of teaching English vocabulary
and how vocabulary interrelates with the advancement of the four language skills.
The third chapter consists of an experimental research meant to explore the impact of
interactive activities on students’ vocabulary acquisition and development of language skills,
providing a full and detailed account of the following stages: problem identification, preliminary
investigation, aim and objectives, organization of the research group, establishing the procedure and
the instruments of data collection, the final assessment and the interpretation of relevant results
followed by conclusions.
This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of interactive strategies on developing
vocabulary acquisition in the English language class in terms of both language performance and
competence, communication, motivation and actual involvement.

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Chapter 1. A Multifaceted approach to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

1.1. Methods and approaches to vocabulary teaching

In contemporary approaches, there are two primary trends observed: one where the educator
plays a central role and selects what students will study, contrasted with another approach that diverts
attention from the instructor towards the learners. This encourages students to take greater ownership
of their educational journey and caters to the distinct requirements of each individual. Recently, there
has been a significant transformation in viewpoint within the field of language education
regarding what should be taught.

To put it simply, the focus has shifted from viewing language merely as
a collection of structures (such as grammatical, phonological, and lexical) that need to
be memorized and practiced, to considering language as a practical system employed to achieve
various communicative objectives, which is identified as communicative competence.

1.1.1. Grammar-translation method

The Grammar-Translation Method is one of the most traditional methods, being originally
used to teach “dead” languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek. The main
feature of this method is its emphasis on understanding grammatical rules and their usage in
translating texts from one language into another: ,,Students were given explanations of individual
points of grammar and then they were given sentences which exemplified these points. These
sentences had to be translated from the target language (L2) back to the students’ first language (L1)
and vice versa’’( Harmer, 2007: 63). Most of the teaching is provided in students’ first language.
Vocabulary is primarily introduced through direct translation from the first language and through
memory techniques, utilizing bilingual lists of words. Most of the instructional time is dedicated to
working on grammar tasks, with a strong focus on precision and adherence to a specified
format. Grammar is taught methodically, using the students' first language and is reinforced by
translating between the two languages.
When it comes to language abilities, reading and writing are notably preferred to speaking and
listening. There is minimal emphasis on verbal practice, leaving students with insufficient
chances to create their own sentences. While following grammar guidelines may increase their
accuracy, they tend to adopt a hesitant manner when speaking, which can be hard for listeners.
They often formulate their responses while their partner is still talking. Although their responses may
be correct, they frequently fail to fully engage with what the other person is saying. Students usually
struggle to connect with the language, as the classroom setting prevents them
from making it personal or cultivating their unique style.
The Grammar-Translation technique ought to be balanced with different
strategies to develop a more adaptable and supportive method; otherwise, it “will have a harmful
effect on students’ interest and motivation and this will eventually lead to frustration and lack of
confidence in language usage. On the other hand, for students who respond well to rules, structure and
correction, the grammar-translation method can provide a challenging and even appealing classroom
environment”(Thuleen, 1996: 29-30).

1.1.2. The Direct Method

This method of teaching was developed as a reaction to the Grammar-

Translation technique and aimed to engage the student similarly to the process of acquiring a first
language. The direct approach to teaching, which may be referred to as the natural approach,
is frequently (though not solely) applied in the instruction of foreign languages and avoids the use of
the learners' mother tongue, utilizing solely the language being learned. Instruction occurs entirely in
the language being taught, grammar is imparted through inductive
methods, emphasis is placed on oral communication and listening skills, and only practical
"everyday" vocabulary is covered. ,,This may have been a reaction against incessant translation, but,
allied to the increased numbers of monolingual native speakers who started, in the twentieth century,
to travel the world teaching English, it created a powerful prejudice against the presence of the L 1 in
language lessons’’ (Harmer, 2007: 64).
When using the direct method the teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or
demonstrations The primary focus is on listening and speaking skills, and all instructions are delivered
in the target language by the teacher. Overall, the instruction aims to
enhance oral competencies. Distinctive aspects of the direct approach include: teaching
grammar through an inductive method (which involves students discovering rules by observing
relevant language examples in the target language), prioritizing spoken communication (with an
emphasis on native-like pronunciation), and concentrating on question-answer patterns. Few words
were introduced and most often, they were limited and related to the grammar structures taught.

1.1.3. The audio-lingual method

This method paid systematic attention to intensive drills of basic sentence patterns and their
pronunciation. Because the emphasis was on teaching grammatical and phonological structures, the
vocabulary needed to be relatively simple, with new words introduced only as they were needed to
make the drills possible (Larsen-Freeman 2000; Zimmerman 1997). It was believed that after students
learned the structural frames, they could later acquire the vocabulary needed to complete the
grammatical elements within those frameworks as necessary. Key activities in the audio-
lingual approach include repetition, vocal reading of dialogues, and
practice exercises. In this methodology, students are expected to generate accurate
responses and apply proper grammar, even though explicit grammatical rules are not
presented; instead, they are learned in a more indirect way. Instructors also focus on ensuring
accurate pronunciation, and the target language is exclusively utilized within the classroom setting.

1.1.4. The communicative approach

That method encourages students to focus on the learning process rather than just memorizing
the target language and to integrate their own experiences into their language learning environment. A
key component of teaching and learning English is interaction. It might establish whether or not the
learning goals of every class meeting can be met. One of the teaching strategies that aligns with the
student-centered approach is the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). By strongly encouraging
communicative activities to be learnt in the classroom, CLT keeps pupils able to engage with the
target language.
In the field of teaching foreign or second languages, the communicative approach is
comparatively a recent adaptation. It is thought that students need to comprehend language's structure,
meaning, and functions. CLT states that a language's form or structure comes after its function or
usage. ,, Communication is a process. Knowledge of the forms of language is insufficient’’ (Larsen-
Freeman, 2000: 128). This highlights the value of approaching functions and forms carefully rather
than suggesting that grammatical expertise is not required for clear communication. The most evident
feature of CLT is that practically everything is done with the intention of communicating. Through
communicative activities including games, role-playing, and problem-solving exercises, students
utilize the language extensively. Examining what individuals truly do with language outside of the
classroom serves as the foundation for the CLT method.
People use language on a daily basis for a variety of purposes, including giving and receiving
permission, making requests and providing and receiving information. To put it another way, they
communicate through language. Giving pupils the tools they need to speak successfully in English is
the goal of communicative language teaching. Through extensive use and practice of the target
language during the learning process, often in situational circumstances, CLT seeks to enhance
communicative competence.
 The methodical consideration of both the structural and functional components of language is
one of the most distinctive characteristics of communicative language instruction. Grammatical
structure may be better divided into several functional categories, according to CLT. Additionally,
compared to earlier times, we now give far less consideration to the clear presentation and explanation
of grammatical principles. "Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying
communicative techniques” (Brown, 1994: 245). However, since fluency and proper language are the
main goals, there are times when fluency must take precedence over correctness. Accuracy is assessed
using contextual contexts rather than abstracts. Fluency is valued more than correctness in order to
keep children actively using the language. But it's important to keep in mind that fluency should
always come after clear, concise communication. Additionally, there is a lot more spontaneity in
communicative classes. (Brown, 1994).
Getting students to use language in a meaningful, real-world, and practical way for worthwhile
goals is the aim of language education approaches. Classrooms ought to provide chances for real-
world scenario practice and genuine dialogue. The primary activities that can help the learner provide
spontaneity and improvisation, aside from drills and repetition, include games, projects, simulations,
dramas, and creative role plays. Since it is believed to be advantageous to give students the
opportunity to practice language comprehension strategies as they are really used by native speakers,
the use of genuine materials is another component of the classroom process. In the classroom,
communication is the goal of all that is done. According to Johnson and Morrow (1981), information
gap, choice, and feedback are considered to be truly communicative acts.
Traditional methods and more creative ones can still be used to teach grammar, but less
methodically. According to Savignon (2002: 7), "... for the development of communicative ability
research findings overwhelmingly support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning -
focused experience" . Grammar is crucial and students appear to pay the most attention to it when it
connects to their experiences and communication needs. Grammar errors almost always result in
communication breakdowns (Savignon 1991, 2001; Thompson 1996). According to these authors,
there are some misconceptions regarding CLT that make it challenging for many educators to
understand what is going on and recognize the beneficial advancements that CLT has brought about.
A communicative strategy encompasses more than just speech abilities. Students' confidence
in all four skill areas must be fostered via the development of their reading and writing abilities. From
the outset, students practice all four abilities; for example, an activity may include speaking, listening,
reading, and possibly writing. Teachers are uncertain about the idea of focusing on speech skills. They
had the wrong idea that CLT was solely focused on teaching speaking.
 But, "CLT is not exclusively concerned with face to face oral communication" (Savignon,
2002: 7). The principles of CLT apply equally to reading and writing activities that engage readers and
writers in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning.
The goal of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is to combine language and culture.
This process can only take place when the students interact with the teacher and one another in the
target language. Many experts believe that the best means for students to acquire a language are
through meaningful and practical communicative activities. This method is entertaining and
instructive for all students. Additionally, communicative activities might aid in achieving the
particular objective of highlighting oral abilities because they include providing opportunities for
genuine communication.
Language and receptive skills are developed together. Learners take pleasure in
communicating authentically through the language. However, many teachers struggle to find easily
accessible and engaging communicative exercises that motivate students to enhance the target
language. There are numerous tools and guides that place a strong focus on accuracy or grammar.
Since these materials can sometimes be altered to include communicative ways to teaching English,
there is a need for a wider variety of communicative resources that can be used with little stress and
effort.
When one student possesses information that another does not, students frequently collaborate
in groups or pairs to communicate meaning—and, if required, to negotiate it. To maximize the
amount of time given to each student for learning to negotiate meaning, more focus should be placed
on active learning strategies like pair or group cooperation in problem-solving exercises. There is a
common misconception that group and pair projects may be used in any situation. However, group
and/or pair work in the classroom should not be viewed as a necessary technique that is always
utilized; in fact, it may not be appropriate in some situations.
Group and/or pair work, according to Thompson (1996) and Savignon (2002), are more
adaptable and practical methods than that implies and are active learning styles that can help the
learners to negotiate meaning and engage in problem- solving activities.
Working in pairs and groups is a practical method to give students some control and choice,
but it needs to be paired with real choice—that is, students need to have some control over their
education. Genuine choice should be used in conjunction with pair or group work for the following
reasons:
1. it allows students to test ideas in a reasonably safe way before presenting them to the
public;
2. it develops students' ideas, which improves their confidence and communication skills; and
 3. it imparts knowledge and skills that may complement those of their partners, increasing
task success.
Errors are tolerated since they are seen as a natural component of developing communication
skills. Learners who try to use the language in a unique and spontaneous way will unavoidably make
mistakes, no matter how hard they try. It is unnecessary and perhaps harmful to constantly correct
things. The teacher's correction ought to remain confidential. More important than language structure
is letting students talk and express themselves. If students believe that form errors are a natural part of
the process of developing their communication skills, they can be proficient communicators even if
they lack linguistic knowledge. (Larsen-Freeman 1986). Evaluation is done based on correctness and
fluency. The finest communicators are not often the students who possess the greatest command of
words and structures. A communicative exam, which is an integrative and has a genuine
communication purpose, is likely to be used by a teacher as part of a formal evaluation. The native
tongue of the pupils is irrelevant. (LarsenFreeman1986). The target language is employed for
classroom administration as well as for communication activities. These classroom management
interactions also teach the students that the target language is a tool for communication. Instructors
may advise students in their native tongue while assigning homework, class assignments, and
assessments.Apart from overseeing classroom activities and providing guidance during them, the
teacher also acts as a "co-communicator" by engaging in the communicative action with the students.
He does not, however, constantly interact directly with students; instead, he functions as an
autonomous participant. In addition, the teacher assumes the roles of learner, researcher, needs
analyst, and counselor. On the other hand, students are becoming more adept at overseeing their own
education.
They must interact with people through writing, group and pair projects, or face-to-face
conversations. They are communicators who actively negotiate meaning in an attempt to be
understood. Through communication, they acquire communication abilities.
(Larsen-Freeman, 1986). Above all, because the teacher's position is less apparent, the teaching and
learning process is student-centered rather than teacher-centered. In other words, the learner plays a
major role in a large portion of the learning process.
The following are some advantages and reasons why the CLT approach is important for
instructing children of various ages: In the CLT classroom, the teacher frequently addresses the entire
class as the students listen or answer questions, especially when the teacher is elaborating on a
language concept. Role plays, group projects, and pair work are all used in CLT. There are some
significant advantages to these kinds of engagement. Working in pairs and groups gives students the
chance to concentrate more on substance and fluency than accuracy, which frequently allows them to
talk more freely than when they are required to answer the teacher's direct questions in front of the
class;
A better use of time is an additional advantage. Compared to other methods of classroom
engagement, it is significantly more efficient and successful to divide students into pairs or groups
and assign them a task that they must complete simultaneously [2]; - Teachers who use the CLT
methodology may assign students at an intermediate level of English to work in pairs on a brief piece
that relates to a topic they are currently discussing in class, like the environment. Teachers with
advanced English proficiency may divide their students into groups and assign role-playing exercises;
The themes should be chosen and graded according to age, needs, level, and students' interest.
The resources utilized must be genuine and include things like news, videos, manuals, recipes, poems,
and articles from newspapers and magazines. Since motivation is crucial, teachers should assist
students in any way that encourages them to work with the language. The communicative method is
student-oriented since it takes into account their needs and interests and views the teacher as a guide
or facilitator. Error is regarded as a necessary component of learning, and evaluation addresses both
the accuracy and fluency of the students. ,,In short, while input processing is linked to acquiring form
and structure, access is linked to accuracy (correctness) and fluency (ease and speed) in output”
( James, 1995, p. 118) . The implication for language instruction is that learners need not only input to
build a developing system, but also opportunities to create output in order to work on fluency and
accuracy. Focusing on accuracy and fluency, however, doen not necessarly entail a return to
mechanical drills and meaningless practice. A focus on output in language instruction should make
every attempt to have learners produce language that communicates something , has meaning - to
someone else. (James, 1995, p. 118). Feedback should be incorporated into each task.
Since the authentic materials are more economic and effortlessly available anywhere and
anytime, the teachers of English can use them to teach in their regular ELT classrooms. There are
many authentic materials available to teach English such as News Papers, Brochures, Pamphlets,
Flyers, Advertisements, Greeting Cards, Invitation Cards, Post-Cards, Wall Papers, Comics, Cartoons,
Story Books,Agony Columns, Directories, Maps, Magazines, Journals, Pictures, Audio Cassettes,
Images, TV Programmes, TV Ads, Movies, Songs, Internet Notices,Bus or Train Timetables, Recipe,
Menus, Stamps, Tickets, Product Labels, Realia such as phones and dolls,Currency, Weather Reports,
Puppets and so on. As authentic materials are selected by the teachers according to the needs and
interests of the learners to involve them in learning the English language skills and to demonstrate
their skills. Using authentic materials in the ELT classrooms have several advantages. They are:
• The selection of authentic resources is based on the learners' interests and needs.
• They are helpful in reducing learners' degree of hesitancy. • They always provide the students
situational language.
• Real-world scenarios are presented to the students.
• Teachers can quickly access them, and they are incredibly cost-effective to utilize in ELT
classrooms.
• You can find them wherever.
• They greatly aid in the development of social language abilities.
• They help students become more adept at interpreting the material they study.
• They help students become more critical thinkers.
• They foster creativity in both teachers and students.
• They educate the students on the state of society.
• Teachers can use them to teach the same content to different classes.
• They encourage students to focus more on their language proficiency.
• They consistently encourage students to read for enjoyment.
• You can simply find them wherever.
• They elevate the students who are more motivated.
• Students who study extremely slowly will benefit more from them.
• They encourage average students to do well.
• They improve the students' capacity for discourse and explanation.
• They advocate for a creative approach to ELT.
• They provide students a sense of accomplishment and make the teaching and learning process
simple and engaging.
• They help teachers create alternative resources more effectively.
• They provide a range of written and spoken discourse genres, registers, and linguistic settings.
• They are very helpful for those with very little prior knowledge and education.
• They effectively create a link between the English classroom and the outside world.
• They encourage students to actively participate in class discussions.
• They help teachers create materials that are appropriate for the students.
• They work as a mediating artifact to put learning English in context.
• They have a favorable impact on students' motivation.
• They help students improve their reasoning and analytical abilities.
• They typically have sound and visuals to make them more visually appealing and engaging.
• They motivate students to participate in class activities and do well on the assignments.
“The class is rich in resources for teaching common vocabulary. Indeed, instructors can make
use of learners, their features and their belongings to teach vocabulary. Involving learners heightens
attention and addsa personal element to the class as learners become active participants in the teaching
process, ”’( james, 1995, p 51) The English language teachers and students should use the authentic
materials appropriately to achieve better outcomes because they offer a number of advantages and are
highly helpful in enhancing their teaching and learning abilities.The success of using authentic
content ultimately depends on the language teachers' ability to choose pertinent authentic materials.
Therefore, it's necessary to talk about how teachers use authentic resources in ELT classes.However,
the implementation of a communicative method presents significant challenges for testing,
assessment, teacher preparation, and material production. Whether a communicative approach can be
used at all levels in a language program, whether it is equally appropriate for ESL and EFL situations,
whether it calls for the abandonment or only revision of current grammar-based syllabuses, how such
an approach can be evaluated, how appropriate it is for non-native teachers, and how it can be
implemented in circumstances where students must continue to take grammar-based tests are some of
the questions that have been raised. Classroom activities like singing songs and taking English register
are examples of authentic language use that may be suitable for younger students. However, some
students may not view the former as communicative despite its authenticity. Youngsters in both their
first and second languages frequently use imaginative play, chatting, singing, and reciting nursery
rhymes and story poems. It is necessary to develop a particular communication and CLT model for
young learners that incorporates these components; this model will differ from one for older learners.

1.2. Methods for cultivating vocabulary through / for the four language skills

Like swimming, playing, and other talents that people execute after learning them, language is
fundamentally a skill—the capacity to talk that sets humans apart from other living things. Utilizing
or performing these things is a skill (action), whereas knowing about them is an intellectual exercise
(cognition). The process of learning a foreign language involves many levels of language, including
speaking, listening, reading, and writing. These skills are essential to any language learning endeavor.
The four skills represent the highest levels of language proficiency and are inseparable from one
another.
Writing and speaking are referred to be productive skills because they require a language
learner or user to be active in addition to producing symbols (letters, etc.) in writing and sounds in
speaking. On the other hand, reading and listening are regarded as receptive skills since the learner is
often passive and absorbs information through these methods.Effective integration of the four skills—
listening, speaking, reading, and writing—is essential for successful English instruction. These
abilities should be taught in a way that enables students to steadily improve their communicative
competence and satisfy the expectations the instructor sets for them. Speaking and listening are
closely intertwined and function together in everyday circumstances. Thus, the goal of combining the
two is to promote efficient oral communication. Real-world and intentional communication will be
ensured by this integration. As abilities, writing and reading have a close link. They are instruments
for producing textual communication that works. Opportunities are necessary for students to improve
their writing and reading abilities.
Students must be exposed to increasingly difficult reading materials and writing assignments
in order to develop their reading and writing skills. Making pupils proficient readers and writers is the
goal.
Actually, combining speaking and listening with reading and writing can help students become
proficient communicators, writers, listeners, and readers so they can communicate clearly. Gaining
proficiency in these abilities takes time. For example, teachers should introduce students to more
difficult assignments and content. A writing activity, for example, can derive in a natural way from
some prior activity such as a conversation or something read. As in real life, it can be the consequence
of a certain situation (Byrne, Donn, 1929, p.20). We see an advertisment for a job, for example, which
involves reading. We talk about it and perhaps phone up about it, which involves speaking and
listening. We then decide ti apply for it, which involves writing.

1.2.1. Receptive skills

1.2.1.1. Listening

To listen means “to pay attention to somebody/something that you can hear” (Hornby, 2007:
750). This implies understanding the message you hear, so that you can respond to it and interact with
the person you hear. It is “perhaps the most challenging of the skills to master in a second language”
because “spoken language (…) is different from written text. In English, speakers may miss a subject
or verb, or may break off their sentence in the middle, (…) or hesitate to think about what he is going
to say next, (…) or include words, phrases, or ideas that are not strictly necessary.” (Hadfield, 2008:
72). According to Ur (1996:111), it is important to work on the development of listening
comprehension, since “students should learn to function successfully in real-life listening situations.”
Harmer (2007:134) distinguishes between two types of hearing. On the one hand, "extensive
listening" refers to the listening that students frequently engage in for enjoyment or other purposes.
They should be able to enjoy listening to the audio content they consume in this fashion, which is
typically on CDs in their automobiles, MP3 players, DVDs, videos, or the internet. This is because
they can understand the texts without the assistance of an instructor or course materials. From a
motivational perspective, this type of listening is crucial since it "increases dramatically when
students make their own choices about what they are going to listen to."
(Hadfield, 2008:77) lists a variety of activities and strategies to help students improve their
listening skills. These include listening with a purpose, which is crucial because students "can adapt
the way they listen to their aims" by paying more attention to the information they need to extract
from the listening text; listening for gist, where the teacher gives the students a task or question before
they listen so they know what information they are listening for; and listening for specific details,
which means that "listening with a clear purpose in mind means that learners develop the ability to
filter out everything they do not need to know" (Hadfield, 2008: 72).
If you keep the acquisition of listening skills in mind in your daily work with your children,
desirable benefits are certain to follow. Group discussions will develop an awareness of the feelings of
others, proper listening etiquette, original and creative thoughts, the ability to relate, the capacity to
contribute to group solutions of common problems, and the flowering of qualities of leadership. In
addition, the individual child will certainly enhance his store of information.
When you help children to gain good listening skills, you give your pupils a useful and necessary tool
for every aspect of social and academic existence
Listening Experiences: Listening to problem situations in story form; thinking of solutions and
making decisions.
One Saturday afternoon Barbara's mother gave her some money and asked her to get a loaf of
bread from a nearby grocery store. On the way she stopped to play on the monkey bars at the park
playground. When she got to the store, the money was gone. She wondered what she should do. What
do you think she did?
Discussion and Oral Exercises:
■Some possible responses are given here, but they should be used only as pump primers, if pump
primers are necessary. Encourage your children to think and discuss, and come to their own solutions.
Do you think Barbara was known to the owner of the store? If she was, what might she have done?
(Asked for credit. Volunteered to help around the store to earn the money for the loaf of bread.)
Suppose Barbara didn't know the owner, or couldn't get credit or work, what else could she have
done? Should she go home and explain what had happened? What might her mother say and do?
What would you have done in Barbara's place?

1.2.1.2. Reading

According to Harmer (2007:99), reading can be categorized into two forms: extensive and
intensive. The former involves reading for enjoyment, typically outside of an educational setting, such
as through magazines, novels, blogs, and websites. Educators should motivate their students to
read, allowing them the freedom to select their reading material, and whenever feasible,
to discuss their reading experiences. In terms of classroom activities focused on intensive reading,
these can include tasks like skimming a text to locate specific details, responding to true or
false questions, completing a summary with missing information, matching headings to their
corresponding paragraphs, rearranging mixed-up paragraphs, and then reading
them thoroughly to organize them correctly. The primary aim of intensive reading is to extract
maximum information from the text. This type of reading demands significant cognitive effort
and concentration; therefore, the selected texts should be engaging and concise to ensure that students
read for shorter duration when they have optimal mental clarity. For both students
and educators to derive the greatest advantages from reading, it is essential for learners to engage in
both intensive and extensive reading practices.To enhance reading abilities, educators have an
essential responsibility. They ought to guide pupils in concentrating on their reading by focusing
on the overall meaning rather than fixating on single words or trivial details, which could obscure the
main idea of the material. Moreover, instructors should assist students in reading in various styles; one
such method involves reading for the general idea, which aims to achieve a specific objective,
whereas reading for specifics is recognized as another approach.
Hadfield (2008:91) also mentions three sub-skills related to reading: drawing on
prior knowledge, anticipating outcomes, and utilizing connectors.
Drawing on prior knowledge enables students to grasp a text better through discussing
the subject matter before delving into the reading. Effective methods for achieving this include
brainstorming and mind-mapping. The former is excellent for generating numerous thoughts on
a given topic and fosters group participation, while the latter aids in structuring those
thoughts and clarifying their interconnections—such as cause and effect, sequence, contrasting
elements, and comparisons. Both exercises assist learners in activating their existing
vocabulary. Anticipation can occur by examining titles, images, or keywords from the text. Students
can make small predictions throughout their reading journey. The final sub-skill is the use of
connectors. Connectors are terms that serve as indicators, revealing the structure of a text
and signaling when new information is presented. Employing these sub-skills can greatly contribute to
enhancing reading proficiency.
To transform reading into an engaging challenge rather than a monotonous task, it
is essential that students do not get caught up in every single word, whether they are reading to
grasp the overall idea or to find particular details. Furthermore, when selecting reading materials,
educators should evaluate not just the complexity but also the appeal, ensuring that learners are
motivated to read for similar reasons as they do in their native language.
Similar to listening exercises, taking time to prepare for the activity by utilizing images and
key terms is vital for aiding students in anticipating the main themes of the
text. Instructors should engage in discussions about the subject matter and pose questions to draw
out language and pique the students' curiosity about the material before
they start reading. Additionally, teachers must confirm that learners
comprehend the key vocabulary necessary for the task at hand before they begin, offering
assistance if required and encouraging students to deduce the meanings of words as they encounter
them, by using contextual clues and accompanying visuals.
Like so many activities in early communicative classrooms, Jigsaw reading (and listening - see
Geddes and Sturtridge, 1979) is designed around an information gap. Different learners have different
information (pieces, paragraphs) of a text which, when combined, allow them to complete the jigsaw.
The only way to do this is to talk about, and share, what they have read. Some of the best kinds of text
for splitting up in this way are stories told from different points of view, or stories told non-
chronologically. Alternatively, texts about some phenomenon or processes (where different elements
go into the whole text) can be very useful. I have sourced stories and articles from newspaper sections
like the UK Guardian Experience' in their Lifestyle section (for example, a story called 'I caught a
falling baby').
1. Give learners just one paragraph from a complete story they will assemble later. Ideally, this
should either be the opening paragraph, or something which is not entirely clear - so that learners will
want to know what it is all about. Tell them to read it carefully. The important thing is for everyone to
be primed for what they will read next.
2 When learners have all read the paragraph, they get into pairs and discuss what they think
happened or what the article is about. Allow them to speculate and discuss this as a whole class, but
don't say whether their guesses are correct.
3 Divide learners into, say, four groups (A-D). Each group gets a paragraph of roughly the
same length from the whole text. Tell the groups to study their paragraphs carefully. Within the group,
they all make sure they understand exactly what is going on and what that parahraph means
4. Now make new groups with one learner each from Group A, B, C and D. Learners have to
share what they have just read so that they can piece together the sequence of facts and/or events.
While they are doing this, go round and help them with things they might have difficulty
understanding.
 5 Get everyone back together and ask for their versions of the story. Help out with language
difficulties and make sure that everyone agrees on the same timeline for the story.
Why it works for me
The way that a complete picture is slowly assembled, and that this can only be done though
purposeful repetition, listening, thought and intergroup participation
ensures that this early communicative activity has stayed around and is included here.
Alternatives
The jigsaw concept can be used with listening as well, of course, or with a mixture of video watching
and listening. The main aim is to find different jigsaw 'pieces' which learners have to share to make
the whole story.

Online/virtual variations
In some ways Jigsaw reading is as easy online as it is in face-to-face encounters. We can send learners
the different texts via email or private messages in the chat/text box or some other communication
system.They can form groups in breakout rooms. They can mix speaking and chatbox participation.

1.2.2. Productive skills

1.2.2.1. Speaking

Hadfield (2008:105) asserts that this highlights the importance of interpersonal connection,
which includes both "putting a message together" and the potential reaction of the listener to the
speaker. However, because "they need to think of something to say (…) and feel confident enough to
try to express it," this encounter poses a challenge for English language learners. After that, pupils
must apply their newly acquired vocabulary and grammar to create a message that others can
comprehend. The teacher can assist students in improving their speaking abilities in a number of
ways.
To help students gain confidence in speaking, teachers should let them practice in pairs. This
will help them become more fluent speakers. The best way to do this is to ask students to speak while
presenting them with a variety of engaging topics or communication scenarios. The teacher's feedback
to students is another crucial factor to take into account when developing speaking abilities. Since this
could result in "that they will not get the chance to develop fluency," the instructor should refrain
from "interrupting learners to correct them while they are speaking" (Hadfield, 2008:107).
The first consideration in improving speaking abilities is that the students' expected level of
language production must be lower than the level of language input (listening). As a result, we use a
lot of speaking exercises in the beginning levels that allow students to participate with little to no
spoken answer. Advanced pupils are urged to start experimenting with language and express
themselves in a far more intimate manner. There are two principal kind of speaking exercises utilized
in elementary schools. Students are encouraged to imitate the model they hear on the CD by the first
type, which consists of songs, chants, and poetry.
Through basic replication, the children can become proficient in the English language's
sounds, rhythms, and intonation. On the other hand, by giving the students some degree of choice, the
games and pair work exercises, while always based on a predetermined model, encourage the students
to start manipulating the language. After the activity starts, the teacher should make sure the kids are
using as much English as they can while praising the utterance and simply repeating it correctly
without necessarily pointing out the mistakes.
Purpose: To review prepositions of location
LEVEL: Beginning to intermediate
Materials: For each student, a copy of the room on page 12.
Enough copies of pictures of the furniture on pages 13 and 14 for each student. Cassette tape which
accompanies these materials.
Procedures:
1 . Cut out enough copies of the pictures of the furniture on pages for each student or pair
of students. Put each set in a separate envelope, which will be given to the student.
2. If the class has very low level English skills, or if the teacher feels it is necessary, the furniture
cards can be identified first and practiced as vocabulary before the activity is started. (NOTE: There
may be two different kinds of tables, vases, and rugs among the pictures. This should be mentioned, if
necessary, to avoid confusion. As long as the student chooses, for example a table, the kind of table is
not important for this activity.)
3. The tape starts with instructions telling the students which pictures of furniture to take from the the
envelope. It then tells them to return the extra pictures to the envelope.
4. Next follows a short dialog about the furniture arrangement of a room. One voice asks questions
and the other answers. The first voice then repeats a shorter form of the question, and asks another
question. This continues until ail the items have been mentioned.
5. As they listen, the students should take the item mentioned and place it in the room where the
dialog located it.
6. After the tape is finished, the teacher should move around the room, checking the results, and the
students should compare results with each other.
7. At first, it may be necessary to stop the tape after each item. Eventually though, if enough of these
activities are done, the students should be able to do the task with only one listening
1.2.2.2. Writing

Richards and Renandya (2002:303) assert that writing poses the greatest
challenge for individuals learning a second language, as they must come up
with ideas, arrange them logically, and convert these concepts into written form, which can be quite
challenging for learners.
Harmer (2007:121) highlights several key factors that are significant in the writing process,
including handwriting, spelling, formatting, and punctuation. Despite the fact that
most communication occurs through digital means today, handwriting remains crucial since there
are situations where students must write by hand, such as during language assessments.
Spelling presents another significant challenge in writing; a notable reason for this difficulty
among English learners is the inconsistent relationship between a word's pronunciation and its
spelling. A single phonetic sound may have various spelling options, and the same spelling could
correspond to multiple sounds. Additionally, rules for formatting and punctuation are vital
components of effective writing.Many writers concur that certain factors contribute to
enhancing writing skills. One such factor is genre, which Harmer (2007:113) defines
as the conventions associated with various types of writing. Understanding genre aids in identifying
formats like advertisements, poems, and formal letters. A practical method for teaching genre involves
instructors presenting examples of desired writing styles, allowing students to apply these techniques
when creating their own pieces.
Another key element in writing is collaborative effort. While numerous students prefer
to write individually, engaging in cooperative writing during classes proves to be more beneficial, as it
facilitates deeper and more constructive feedback. Writing in groups, whether for lengthy or brief
assignments, greatly encourages students. Creative writing emphasizes the role of imagination
in crafting poetry, narratives, and plays. As noted by Ur (1996:169), “most people take pride in
their creations and wish for them to be shared.” However, this sentiment is more frequently associated
with creative writing. Students show increased motivation when educators assign imaginative writing
tasks, as they feel involved and strive to produce a diverse
range of accurate and suitable language outputs, compared to standard assignments.Since writing is a
crucial skill, fostering a habit of writing among students is essential. This way, students
will view writing as a regular aspect of their classroom activities, approaching assignments with a
greater sense of excitement. The writing procedure involves breaking the task down into multiple
phases, each focusing on a vital sub-skill. Brainstorming is an effective strategy as well. In elementary
education, EFL learners evolve from jotting down single words and phrases to composing
brief paragraphs about themselves or topics they know well (such as family, home, hobbies, friends,
food, etc.). At this stage, many learners may not yet possess the linguistic or cognitive skills needed to
produce a text independently, which is why it is critical to first expand their language capabilities and
then show them a sample to inspire their own writing. Consequently, writing exercises should
be structured around a comparative text, guiding the students with straightforward
prompts and ideally occurring toward the unit's conclusion, so that students have had ample
opportunity to engage with the necessary language and practice the key structures and vocabulary.
Keep in mind that at this point, the students' assignments are bound to have
errors, and as educators, we ought to approach our corrections with care, not requiring every mistake
to be pointed out. A written assignment marked extensively with red ink can be
discouraging and typically unhelpful. Whenever possible, we should promote self-correction
among students, allow them to enhance their written pieces, and, when suitable,
showcase their work in the classroom. It is nevertheless important to show the students that writing
can be used for the purpose of communication. The activities which we set up for this purpose are
necessarily simple in form and limited in scope but they will serve to motivate students towards how
to express themselves through writing. A good example can be to ask the students to write instructions
which other students in the class (or the teacher) have to carry out. For example: Take your exercise
book and put it on top of the cupboard”. The students may also be asked to write a sequence of
instructions to be carried out. This is a useful device for practicing items such as....First...Next....After
that...,, First go to the front of the class. Then write something on the blackboard. After that, clean the
blackboard!These instructions may be given to anyone in class to perform. Alternatively, they may be
addressed to someone by name, in the form of a note or short letter. For example: Dear Ann, Take
your bag and put it in the wastepaper basket! Yours, Fred. ( sa fie scrise de elevi)
Learners create a newspaper/website front page and respond to new stories as they come in.
There is a long tradition in language teaching of simulating the activity in a newsroom where
decisions have to be made, headlines created,articles written and changes made, sometimes at the last
moment(see stage 8).This activity can, of course, be compressed into a one-lesson sequence,but it has
much more power when it stretches over two or more classes.It becomes as much a learning as a
practice activity.
1 Give learners examples of print newspapers and online sites. What you choose will depend
on their age and level, of course. Ask them to notice features such as how articles are constructed – an
opening paragraph which briefly states the whole ‘story’, detailed information in the next paragraphs,
final paragraph which sums up the story and ends with questions or (what people say) is going
to happen next Have them look at the headlines and see how they are constructed: in print media,
grammar words such as articles and auxiliaries are often omitted, for example. Online headlines are
often more‘complete’, but how and why? Ask learners to look at what stories come first and why.
Finally, they can discuss issues such as what photos and other visuals are used and why.
2 Put learners in small groups. Give each group two or three different stories. Depending on
their age and level, these can be ones that you invent or adapt. In higher level groups, you can hand
round newspapers and/or have them investigate different online news sites.You can assign different
sites to different groups. Ask the learners to make notes of all the main stories – but not the headlines,
especially.You should also find, adapt or write some appropriate stories to feed in as ‘late-arriving news’ at
stage 8.
3 Now make new groups by moving one or two learners from theoriginal groups. (If it is a
smaller class, these next stages can all bedone as a whole class activity.)
4 Ask learners to share the stories they have found. While they are discussing them, they
should start to think of which ones are the most important.
5 Now tell learners how many stories should fit on their front page.Tell them to choose which
ones they will include. Depending on their age and level you can give them word limits for each
article – and other constraints to help them formulate their pieces.
6 Learners now write their articles following, as far as the possible, the models they came
across in stage 1. While they are doing this you can go round offering support and advice.
7 Now ask learners to write the headlines.
8 Give learners time to design their pages. The learners who have the best digital skills should do the
layout and design while the others offer their opinions and suggestions. At this stage – depending on the level of the
class and the time available – you can introduce some late-arriving stories. The students will have to decide whether
to include them or not, and how this will affect the layout of the front page.
9 When learners have finished their front page, they can show them to the whole class who
then evaluate them and, if you think this inappropriate, choose their favourite.
Why it works for me
Front page is an exciting ‘hands-on’ activity which involves reading (and listening/watching),
design, and crucially (which is where the face-to-face communication comes in), discussion
and decision-making. Best of all, the learners have something to show for it when it is over.
Alternatives
You can use the same basic procedure to recreate a radio or TV newsroom. Learners have to choose
the stories which will be aired,what order they will be presented in, and what words the newsreader
will use. Once again, we can feed in late-arriving news, and we can have them make the programme
after choosing camera operatives,newscaster, etc. We can substitute other topics (fashion, entertainment,
sport etc.) instead of general news if we wish.

Chapter 2: Methods and Approaches Used in Vocabulary Teaching

2.1. Traditional approaches and techniques in English vocabulary teaching

2.1.1. Guessing meaning from context

It is generally accepted by educators that having an extensive vocabulary is crucial for
understanding and effective communication, and there’s a significant link between vocabulary
knowledge and success in academics. If this holds true, it stands to reason that incorporating a wide
range of vocabulary in reading lessons is essential. Nonetheless, there is a lack of consensus among
researchers and teachers regarding the best methods for vocabulary instruction for learners.
According to Klesius and Searls, teaching vocabulary includes both explicit and implicit
approaches. On one side, explicit instruction involves the teacher directly conveying information to
the students, while on the other side, implicit instruction entails the teacher shaping different elements
of the classroom setting to guide students towards particular outcomes (Klesius & Searls, 1991:165).
Learning vocabulary using context is a productive technique that employs both direct and
indirect teaching methods, and it is also one of the most effective strategies for skilled readers. When
teaching students how to infer the meaning of words from context, the teacher helps them recognize
hints to decode word meanings, thereby enhancing their confidence and skill. This particular
vocabulary acquisition technique works well for understanding less common words, especially when
engaging with genuine texts.When attempting to infer meanings from context to tackle unfamiliar
terms, Nation and Coady (1980: 102) argue that there exist two varieties of context. The first category
is termed minimal context, which should be sufficiently detailed to offer enough hints for deducing
the meaning of a word. This type should incorporate morphological, semantic, and syntactic details
relevant to the specific text. Due to the inadequacy of many contexts, relying on just one instance
often falls short for students to fully grasp the meaning of the word. The second category is known as
general context, which encompasses the background knowledge regarding the subject matter that the
reader possesses related to the content. The specific context includes the surrounding words and
phrases that provide insight into the meaning of the unfamiliar word. These additional terms may be
located within the same sentence as the unknown word or across different sentences.
When attempting to infer meanings from context to tackle unfamiliar terms, Nation and Coady (1980:
102) argue that there exist two varieties of context. The first category is termed minimal context,
which should be sufficiently detailed to offer enough hints for deducing the meaning of a word. This
type should incorporate morphological, semantic, and syntactic details relevant to the specific text.
Due to the inadequacy of many contexts, relying on just one instance often falls short for students to
fully grasp the meaning of the word. The second category is known as general context, which
encompasses the background knowledge regarding the subject matter that the reader possesses related
to the content. The specific context includes the surrounding words and phrases that provide insight
into the meaning of the unfamiliar word. These additional terms may be located within the same
sentence as the unknown word or across different sentences.This approach suggests prioritizing
context instead of concentrating on the individual components of words, which is considered a final
step. Nation (2001:150-156) explains that relying solely on prefixes and roots is not a dependable
method for making guesses, while utilizing the context tends to enhance the likelihood of making
accurate inferences. He further mentions that once this technique is well-understood, students may
start to bypass certain steps and the remaining steps will gradually become more instinctive. Gaining
knowledge from context encompasses not just extensive reading but also involves participating in
discussions, listening to narratives or broadcasts, and watching movies or television shows.
There are four interconnected factors involved in the process of making educated guesses in
both written and spoken language: the individual interpreting the text, the text itself, unfamiliar
vocabulary, and contextual hints which include some prior knowledge about making guesses. The lack
of any one of these components can influence the learner's capability to make educated conjectures.
There are numerous hints that students can utilize to derive meanings independently, including
images, the resemblance of spelling or pronunciation in their primary language, and their general
understanding (Walters, 2004:01). It's essential to equip students with techniques to deduce the
significance of unfamiliar terms based on the surrounding context rather than having them memorize
extensive lists of vocabulary or search for unfamiliar words in a dictionary, which could hinder the
reading experience and likely not enhance actual vocabulary acquisition. To enhance students' abilities
to interpret meanings from context, educators can employ cloze or gap-fill activities where certain
words are omitted from texts, exercises focusing on words within context, and activities aimed at
enriching context.There are many reasons why teachers should choose to teach vocabulary in context,
the more important being that it develops an attitude of self-confidence, contributes to learner’s
autonomy and facilitates the transfer of knowledge. Students are instructed to develop strategies like
anticipating and inferring, which are highly beneficial learning processes. EXEMPLE

2.1.2. Teaching vocabulary with the semantic field theory

 The process of teaching and learning vocabulary has gained significant focus in
recent times, primarily revolving around how students can effectively acquire vocabulary or how it
can be imparted in a successful manner. Additionally, critical considerations in vocabulary education
include which specific words ought to be taught, the sequence in which they should be introduced,
and the methods of their presentation. Webb points out that it is essential for educators and researchers
to be meticulous when choosing target vocabulary, since “the type of words chosen, and their L2
relationships may determine the size of gains” (2007:77).
Numerous educational texts present vocabulary in a manner that groups semantically
related terms; typically, each module includes words that share a common theme, which
instructors should cover in one lesson, encouraging students to absorb them collectively.
Words do not function independently; instead, they create various semantic domains. For
example, the animal domain encompasses all terms related to animals, including horse, cow, sheep,
dog, giraffe, wolf, bear, and lion. Terms that share a semantic category reside within the same
field. Based on semantic field theory, a word's meaning is influenced by its connections to other
words within the same category. There are different
types of semantic relationships, including hyponymy, part-whole relationships, synonymy, and
antonymy. The English language is particularly abundant in synonyms. Since synonyms express the
same idea, we frequently use them to clarify new vocabulary during teaching. While teaching
the term peer, we can prompt students to provide words related to look, leading us to terms
like glance, glimpse, stare, gaze, glare, and watch. Subsequently, additional synonyms such
as peep and peek can be introduced, along with explanations of the distinctions between these
words.Advancements in the study of meaning and the mental lexicon have led
to the creation of theories such as semantic field theory, semantic networks, or semantic
grid approaches, which categorize and present words based on their interconnected meanings (Gus
and Johnson, 1996:64). A straightforward illustration of a semantic field includes terms related to
family relationships: father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, uncle, aunt, along with various body
parts as a subset. Words can be classified based on different criteria, such as the physical or
perceptual characteristics of animals, which may be grouped as pet, wild, or food, for instance.
Students tend to retain words that are related in meaning more effectively than those that are
not associated. Therefore, they require structured, focused teaching that
helps them identify the relationships among words. Consequently, educators should apply semantic
field theory to aid students in their vocabulary acquisition, thereby enhancing their motivation to learn
and improving the overall effectiveness of vocabulary development.
Synonymy
A synonym refers to a word or expression that holds the same or nearly the same meaning as
another term within the same language. Words that function as synonyms are described
as synonymous, and the condition of being a synonym is known as synonymy. Synonymy can
be characterized as either “similarity in meaning” or “identity in meaning.” Synonyms that share
exactly the same meaning are referred to as absolute or perfect synonyms (for
example, myopia and near-sightedness), as they can be exchanged in any context across all possible
(semantic, grammatical, sociolinguistic) scenarios. In contrast, terms that are often synonymous in a
specific sense or possess somewhat similar meanings are identified as near-synonyms. For instance, in
the phrase long time, the words long and extended can be used interchangeably, but long would not
fit in the expression extended family.Synonymy denotes the relationship between different meanings
of words, indicating that a single word often has various sets of synonyms for each interpretation.
For example, the words begin, start, commence, and initiate can all be used interchangeably. There
are many situations where one word is appropriate in a particular context, while its synonym might
seem inappropriate. Furthermore, synonymous terms may differ in levels of formality.
The statement My father purchased a large automobile is much more formal compared to the casual
alternative: My dad bought a big car. (Yule, 1996:117). Synonyms can also be categorized based on
their meaning differences that do not denote the same item, such as variations in dialect
(highway~motorway) or language differences (dog~canine).For
our learners, recalling a specific word is often a challenge; therefore, the use of synonyms is crucial.
When a synonym is more familiar than the term being taught, it can assist the student in grasping the
various nuances of meaning. Adjectives frequently come with multiple synonyms, as do phrasal verbs
which typically have a single-word equivalent. In the educational process, employing synonyms can
aid students in broadening their vocabulary. For instance, when an educator says the word
glimmer, they might also share synonyms like beam, gleam, glow, glitter, shine, flash,
dazzle, and shimmer. Following this, they may prompt the learners to memorize these
words collectively and explore the distinctions among them. It's important for the instructor to
emphasize that "true" synonyms are uncommon, and that what are often presented are near-
synonyms. Students could create crosswords, word snakes, or similar activities using these
synonyms. However, if synonymy is not taught effectively, it may hinder vocabulary development, as
learners tend to misuse synonyms since some are applicable in specific contexts but not others.
For instance, strong and powerful are similar, yet tea is typically described as strong while engines
are characterized as powerful.
 2. A creative writing session could be initiated by group discussion using a children's thesaurus
as a resource. Hold a class discussion in which students, using the thesaurus, contribute a synonomous
word to be used in writing a para- graph about an animal or person. A few starter terms and
accompanying lists may include tall, fat, and smart:
Tall fat smart
Lofty fleshy clever
Towering beefy keen
High brawny bright
Elevated portly quick-witted
Soaring unwieldy shrewd

Ask the boys and girls to select a strip of paper from a hat on which is written the name of a
well-known person or famous animal or the name of a relative (father, aunt, grandmother, etc.). Then
ask the students to think of several words to use in place of the name: he or him, she or her, that
fragile creature, large fluffy-tailed animals, three-year old imp, sassy tomboy, fantastic girl, and so on.
Ask the children to construct a paragraph using many of the chosen words. Upper-elementary students
will especially enjoy this activity.
3. Art activities and reading/language skill-building exercises can be paired to add a unique
change of pace to the usual paper and pencil tasks. In the activity that follows, the reading skill
involves skimming a list of words in order to select an appropriate synonym for given target words.
Smile Fast Boy
Grin porch phone
Swing glow lad
Sit rapid orange
Once the synonyms are selected and discussed by the group, ask the children to draw or paint
a picture that includes, for example, at least two people, two animated characters, or two vehicles that
demonstrate one pair of the synonymous terms from the exercise. Also request that children write two
sentences about the picture that incorporate the synonyms. As a follow-up, children's sentences and
pictures can be displayed, mounted into a book, and read orally in a group

Antonymy

In conjunction with other lexical-semantic relationships like synonymy and hyponymy,

antonymy has frequently been regarded as fundamental by linguists, psychologists, and
lexicographers. All these relationships share the essential feature of
being present in every natural language and are often defined more effectively with examples
than through definitions. To illustrate what antonym means, providing examples is the most
straightforward approach: hot/cold, wet/dry, old/new, good/bad, clean/dirty, among others. These pairs
are considered antonyms in the technical sense recognized by many linguists, as they are gradable
adjectives with opposite meanings; however, in a broader context,
as defined by certain lexicographers and most common users, antonyms cover a range of words
including nouns, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions, such as male/female, true/false, friend/enemy,
front/back, beginning/end, love/hate, pass/fail, quickly/slowly, in/out, and up/down.
The distinct distribution of antonyms is highlighted through syntactic parallels and
the application of copulative, disjunctive, and adversative conjunctions. Based on their structure,
antonyms can be categorized as:
a) Absolute antonyms, also referred to as root or radical antonyms, include pairs like cause-effect,
light-dark, sick-well, to come-to go, friend-enemy, to remember-to forget, life-death, above-below,
among others. This category additionally consists of nouns representing individuals and animals
of opposing sexes, such as man-woman, stallion-mare, male elephant-female elephant, he-parrot-she-
parrot. These types of compounds and similar root antonyms are interconnected as one idea typically
brings to mind its opposite; for instance, abstract suggests the concept of concrete. It is evident that
there is harmony between linguistic expression and real-world experiences. A
word can have multiple root antonyms; for instance, bad can mean good, moral, virtuous,
while love can represent hate, antipathy, aversion, or hostility.
The grammatical classification of a word significantly influences the choice of its antonyms.
As a verb, love has antonyms like hate, despise, and loathe. Words with multiple meanings can
exhibit several antonyms, such as to part - to gather, or to part - to remain;
black - white or black - bright.
b) Derivational antonyms, or affixal antonyms, create opposition not by altering the root but by
using various prefixes or suffixes linked to a shared base. Negative prefixes and suffixes are employed
for this purpose. The prefixes dis-/un-, which indicate “the opposite of” or “doing the opposite of
a particular action,” form counterterms in pairs such as: appear-disappear, belief-disbelief, helpful-
unhelpful, dressed-undressed, employed-unemployed, and fold-unfold.
Allomorphs like in-, im-, ill-, and ir- occur in antonymic pairs such as active-inactive, mature-
immature, literate-illiterate, and rational-irrational. Suffixes can also create antonymic pairs, seen in
hopeless-hopeful, peaceful-peaceless, and remorseful-remorseless. Occasionally, prefixes complement
these suffixes, as illustrated by spiritless-unspirited.
The primary factor influencing antonym formation is morphological derivation, showcased in pairs
like correct/incorrect, prove/disprove, directly/indirectly, officially/unofficially, agree/disagree,
legal/illegal, honest/dishonest, advantage/disadvantage, and encourage/discourage.
To assist students in rapidly acquiring vocabulary, educators frequently employ the technique
of “contrast” (comparison). This approach allows learners to easily recall antonym pairs in the correct
context. Nonetheless, not every word has a definitive antonym. For instance, “fresh” can be
part of various phrases such as fresh bread, fresh air, and fresh flowers. Presenting corresponding
antonyms like stale bread, stuffy air, and faded flowers can clarify the term fresh for
students.a) Absolute antonyms, also referred to as root or radical antonyms, include pairs like cause-
effect, light-dark, sick-well, to come-to go, friend-enemy, to remember-to forget, life-death, above-
below, among others. This category additionally consists of nouns representing individuals and
animals of opposing sexes, such as man-woman, stallion-mare, male elephant-female elephant, he-
parrot-she-parrot. These types of compounds and similar root antonyms are interconnected as one idea
typically brings to mind its opposite; for instance, abstract suggests the concept of concrete. It is
evident that there is harmony between linguistic expression and real-world experiences. A
word can have multiple root antonyms; for instance, bad can mean
Hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to a type of relational inclusion. It involves a connection where the meaning of
a specific term is encompassed within a broader concept. The broader term is referred to as the
hypernym or superordinate. A large portion of language is interconnected through these systems of
inclusion, creating semantic networks that establish hierarchical classifications. For instance, words
like pigeon, crow, eagle, and seagull are all examples of hyponyms of the term bird (which serves
as their hypernym), and bird itself is a hyponym of animal. Other terms that describe a hypernym
include umbrella term and blanket term. Using hyponymy in vocabulary instruction can
effectively support students in expanding their lexicon and improving retention by fostering a
deeper understanding of word meanings. Related terms or grouped words are considerably easier
to commit to memory compared to a disorganized assortment. Educators can take an active role
in assisting learners with understanding word meanings when required, categorizing similar types of
words, providing one or two instances of hyponyms, and encouraging student engagement
through active thought, creating a lively classroom environment.
Homonymy and Polysemy
Homophones are words within a single language that sound the same, despite differing
spellings, meanings, or etymologies, such as pair and pear. Some homophones also share identical
spelling, like bear (the animal) and bear (to carry). However, the list here focuses solely
on homophones that are not spelled the same: ant/aunt, eye/I, ate/eight, fare/fair, bear/bare, sea/see,
son/sun, steal/steel, threw/through, throne/thrown, be/bee, blew/blue, by/bye/buy, beach/beech,
cell/sell, cent/scent/sent, cereal/serial, die/dye, etc.
Homographs are words that share the same spelling but have distinct pronunciations: for
example, bow rhyming with go when indicating the weapon for shooting arrows, and bow rhyming
with cow when referring to the act of bending the upper body in a respectful gesture.
The skill of accurately and appropriately using word meanings is a crucial aspect of
linguistic proficiency. Given the intricate nature of
word meanings and the semantic relationships involved, "the acquisition of word meaning is neither a
simple process nor one that is ever complete" (Wilkins, 1972:178). Since grasping word meanings is a
challenging and ongoing endeavor, finding effective strategies for teaching these meanings
remains a demanding and continuous pursuit.

2.1.3. Instruction on Vocabulary through Collocations and Idiomatic Expressions

Numerous investigations in the realm of vocabulary suggest that placing vocabulary at

the core of language education is essential, as language is fundamentally
composed of grammaticalized vocabulary rather than grammar that has merely been lexicalized.
Lewis posited that the lexical method signifies a paradigm shift in language instruction from focusing
on grammar to emphasizing vocabulary and stated,
“language comprises not conventional grammar alongside vocabulary, but frequently involves
prefabricated multi-word combinations” (1997:3). These combinations feature idioms,
collocations, and both fixed and semi-fixed phrases, collectively referred to as “formulaic
language.” Schmitt claimed that “formulaic language plays an essential
part in aiding language acquisition; it is vital for achieving fluency and inspires learners” (2000:79).

Collocations

Typically, vocabulary is viewed merely in terms of individual words and their

respective families. However, understanding vocabulary extends beyond simply grasping the meaning
of a word on its own; it also encompasses knowing which words frequently appear
alongside it. The words that are likely to appear together with high frequency are termed collocations,
comprising expressions that are either fully or partially fixed due to their consistent usage in specific
contexts. Examples of collocated word pairs include heavy rain, strong possibility, deep feeling, and
hard work. The bond between these words is so robust that substituting one with a synonym would
sound odd. For instance, we use fast food, not quick food, while we can say quick meal but not fast
meal, despite quick and fast having equivalent meanings.
Collocations can be categorized into two primary syntactic types. These include grammatical
collocations and lexical collocations (Benson, Benson, and Ilson 1986, as referenced in Bahn
1992:57).
Grammatical collocations are characterized by the frequent co-occurrence of a noun, verb, or
adjective with a grammatical element, typically a preposition. Examples include: reason for, account
for, by accident, in fact, rely on, believe in, proud of, and afraid of.
On the other hand, lexical collocations do not feature grammatical words; they consist
of various combinations of full lexical elements, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. These combinations can be classified as follows:
- verb + noun: spend money, inflict a wound, make a decision, take place/part
- adjective + noun: rancid butter, dense fog, strong/weak tea, best regards, a quick meal
- verb + adverb: laugh loudly, argue heatedly, appreciate sincerely
- adjective + adverb: quite safe, deeply absorbed.
- adverb + adjective: extremely successful, intensely worried, totally unachievable, completely
informed.
When instructing students on collocations, educators ought to consider
them as cohesive language units, instructing them as separate chunks rather than as strongly +
support. Additionally, instructors should introduce collocations categorically, based on themes (such
as time, numbers, weather, finances, family) or centered around specific vocabulary (like take action,
take a chance, take an exam).
Collocations play a crucial role in the acquisition of vocabulary because, as noted
by Nattinger, “the meaning of a word greatly relates to the words with which it frequently associates”
(1988:69). These connections assist learners in grasping these words as well as clarifying the
semantic domain of a term.
Idioms In contrast to collocations, which consist of words that often pair together, idioms
are entire expressions whose meanings differ considerably from the literal and individual meanings of
the words. Idioms are entirely fixed phrases with a singular meaning that cannot
be inferred from their parts. For example, the phrase blow one’s mind conveys the singular idea of
astonishment, while be under the weather communicates the idea of feeling unwell. The singular
nature of idioms makes them particularly challenging for learners of a second language because their
meanings are not typically deducible from the individual words they comprise.
Learners may become perplexed by idioms like let the cat out of the bag or spill the beans
- meaning to disclose a secret, cost an arm and a leg - referring to being very costly, shed crocodile
tears - indicating insincerity, or rain cats and dogs - meaning to rain heavily. Conversely,
they may be completely misled by what seems to be a straightforward literal interpretation of other
idioms, such as have cold feet - signifying a lack of courage, have second thoughts - meaning to
doubt, tighten one’s belt - indicating to economize, have a good heart - representing kindness, or break
the ice - referring to easing tension
(http://theroundtable.partium.ro/Current/Language/Claudia_Leah_Idioms).
Idioms constitute a frequently observed category of multiword expressions in
English, particularly in casual conversation, and should not be overlooked in
vocabulary instruction. While it is rare for students to employ them confidently and
effectively, omitting the teaching of idioms would result in their missing out on a
significant cultural aspect of the language they aim to master. Nonetheless, it stands to reason that
idioms ought to be instructed to students at an upper-intermediate or advanced level, those who
are prepared to enhance their English fluency further.

2.1.4. Enhancing vocabulary through word creation

One feature shared by all human languages is the ability to produce new terms. Over
time, both English and Romanian have embraced new words via borrowing and the use of
morphological and derivational principles applied to current words and morphemes.
Compounding involves merging two or more roots. In English, the
roots that are united to create compounds typically include nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions.
The most prevalent form of word formation results from combining two (or more) nouns
to create a new noun, such as landmine, wallpaper, and toothbrush. The first element in
these compounds can be descriptive (for example, tablecloth - a covering for a table), or
both parts may generate an entirely different meaning (such as railroad, fireworks, waterfall). It is
also feasible to construct words where each component holds equal significance or describes its
meaning, like a washer-dryer, which denotes a device that serves two purposes.
Compounds can sometimes appear as a single word, at other times with a hyphen, or
occasionally as distinct words. This categorization leads to three forms of compounding:
solid compounds, temporary compounds, and open compounds.
Solid compounds, which are written as a single word, are the most frequently
encountered type. Referred to as "closed" forms, these typically consist of two moderately short
words combined into one, such as housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, and basketball.
 The combinations found in solid compounds include:
- adjective + noun (blackboard)
- noun + adjective (goldfish)
- adverb in initial position (background)
- adverb + verb (overcome, outline)
- noun + noun (handwriting)
Temporary compounds are represented in a hyphenated format, where two or more words
are linked by a hyphen. Compounds that feature affixes, like house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)
(ness), along with adjective-adjective and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dried,
are frequently hyphenated. Additionally, compounds that include articles, prepositions, or
conjunctions, such as long-term solution, up-to-date, and salt-and-pepper, are
also commonly hyphenated.
Open compounds are made up of two or more words that are written as separate entities.
Richard (2000) notes that a common characteristic of English compounds is their instability. The same
author might categorize a particular lexical group as either a word group at one time and as
compounds at another. Typically, scientific compounds do not use hyphens and are classified as open
compounds; for instance: full moon, real estate, living room, coffee table. A classifying
genitive accompanied by a noun also forms an open compound, such as in: a child’s play, a bird’s
nest. Combinations of adjectives with nouns (public school, young man) are classified as open
compounds as well.

Conversion

Conversion is the process of forming a new word without modifying the existing one
through affixation. This process shifts the grammatical category of the word. There are five forms of
conversion:
- nouns turned into verbs (nurse, cash, ship, mail)
- verbs made into nouns (dance, love, doubt, turn, laugh)
- adjectives changing into verbs (open, calm, empty, clean, dirty)
- adjectives transforming into nouns (the rich, the young, the poor)
- verb formations from prepositions (to down a beer, to out somebody)

Additional methods of word creation include backformation and blending.

Backformation involves generating a new term by truncating an existing one, like abled
(from disabled), to explete (from expletive), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to liaise (from liaison), to
burgle (from burglary), to edit (from edition, editor), to peddle (from peddler), and to scavenge (from
scavenger).

Blends are formed by merging sections of two distinct words; examples include brunch (from
breakfast and lunch) and smog (from smoke and fog).
Other forms of word formation in English include clipping or abbreviation (phone, vet, lab,
Maths, gym, exam, fridge, ad, sitcom etc.), acronyms (CD, RAM, PC, NATO etc.), and onomatopoeia
(hiccup, buzz, sizzle), although these methods are not as prevalent as those mentioned earlier.

2.1.5. The utilization of dictionaries

The act of consulting dictionaries has been acknowledged for a considerable time as a strategy
for vocabulary development. Although dictionaries play a crucial role in English language
acquisition and the exploration of vocabulary growth through their usage has a relatively extensive
research background, “interest from a research perspective has been limited and sporadic over the
years” (Ronald 2003: 285).
Certain studies (for example, Cohen 1988 referenced in Nesi 2000: 37–39, Heijnen 2000 referenced in
Welker 2010: 177–178) found an insignificant connection between dictionary usage and reading
comprehension test results, indicating that dictionary use only significantly benefited learners at
an intermediate level, while those at lower or higher levels did not see similar advantages.
On the other hand, various investigations have revealed a favorable relationship between the
utilization of dictionaries and the understanding of vocabulary. Tono (2001:75–
83) highlighted a notable performance difference in reading comprehension when
using dictionaries compared to not using them. Comparable outcomes were noted by Bogaards (2002,
cited in Welker 2010: 178–179), whose research confirmed
a slightly positive effect of dictionaries on understanding contextually altered idioms.
Should we motivate students to utilize dictionaries? Absolutely, since dictionaries foster
learner independence and serve as a useful tool for exploring various meanings, collocations,
examples of usage, and proper pronunciation.
A beneficial strategy for students to expand and enhance their vocabulary is by increasing both
access to and reliance on dictionaries during classroom activities and homework. It’s essential for
learners to acquire the skills needed to autonomously enhance their English vocabulary.
There are several justifications for using a dictionary. For students acquiring a new language,
dictionaries serve as critical instruments. With a reliable dictionary, they can seek the definition of an
English term they encounter or hear, and find its Romanian equivalent. They can verify the spelling of
a term, identify the plural form of a noun, or the past tense of a verb, and gather other grammatical
information related to the word. By utilizing a thesaurus, they can discover synonyms or antonyms of
a word, or examine the word's collocations, and so on.
It is crucial for students to understand what purposes dictionaries serve, when to utilize them, and
which dictionaries are best suited to meet their needs. For students to view dictionaries as an
essential resource, they must not only learn how to employ them effectively but also makethink in
English as much as possible. I believe that learners should have a bilingual dictionary on hand as a
supportive tool but that training should focus on monolingual dictionary work. This is because
sometimes a quick translation works best, as in the case of many concrete nouns, but it is a good idea
to foster thinking and explanation in English. Bilingual dictionaries can also enable students to
express something they want to say when they don't know the correct words in the target language.
EXAMPLE

2.2. New perspectives on teaching English vocabulary

In recent decades, the instruction of English has gained tremendous significance, particularly
for younger learners. Similar to other children, Romanian pupils have a knack for learning new
languages effortlessly, but they can lose interest quickly if outdated and traditional teaching methods
are employed. It is our duty as educators to discover engaging and appealing techniques to teach
and inspire our pupils. The incorporation of educational games in the learning environment is
becoming increasingly popular and valued in schools and educational facilities. The last few years
have marked a revival of games and play activities. Games represent one way to eliminate
monotony in the classroom, and they should play an essential part in teaching foreign languages.
Both learners and instructors stand to gain from integrating games into lesson time. Moreover, by
using games, educators can achieve various educational targets, particularly when it comes to teaching
vocabulary. Although language structure is considered “the skeleton of the language”, it agreed that
vocabulary is “the vital organs and flesh” (Harmer, 1991:153). Vocabulary is the basic part and a key
element to learn any language. Teaching vocabulary through the use of games has become crucially
important for English language learners because they sustain enjoyment and interest in learning and
encourage using the language in a fearless and creative manner. According to Harmer (2005: 7), the
age of students is a major factor in our decision about how and what to teach. People of different ages
have different needs, competences and cognitive skills. Young children acquire much of a foreign
language through play, whereas adults have a greater use of abstract thought.
 Consequently, educators working with young students should dedicate a significant amount of
time to investigating and comprehending the ways in which their pupils function and
think. Instructing young learners is considerably more challenging than teaching older teenagers or
adults, as young students tend to lose focus quickly. Children enjoy engaging in enjoyable
activities and play, thus teachers need to select teaching approaches that align with children's natural
tendencies.
Young learners should engage in practice that incorporates diverse and suitable methods,
which facilitate their processing of information and simultaneous use of the language. By
utilizing games, young learners can connect, explore, and experiment with the world around
them. Incorporating games not only boosts students' enthusiasm but also serves as a
motivation and encouragement for them to use the language. While using games, we should take into
account Allen’s thoughts as she expresses that games are helpful because they can make students feel
that certain words are important and necessary, because without those words, the object of the game
cannot be achieved (1983:52).
The pedagogical value of games in language learning at all levels has been well documented.
Apart from their motivational value as an enjoyable form of activity, they provide a context in which
the language is embedded. This context is 'authentic' in the sense that the game creates its own world:
for the duration of the game, it replaces external reality. Games also create the circumstances for
meaningful repetition. Furthermore, the 'same game can be played many times yet never produce
identical outcomes. Needless to say, games also ensure that the players interact with each other, and
this interaction is usually played out in language.Games are fun and children like to play them. That in
itself is a strong argument for incorporating them in the EFL classroom. Playing games is a vital and
natural part of growing up and learning. Through games children experiment, discover, and interact
with their environment. Not to include games in the classroom would be to withhold from the children
an essential tool for understanding their world; a world which the language teacher seeks to enlarge
through the experience of a foreign language.
Games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible incentive to
use the target language. Remember that for many children between four and twelve years, especially
the youngest, language learning will not be the key motivational factor. Games can provide this
stimulus. The game context makes the foreign language immediately useful to the children. It brings
the target language to life. The game makes the reasons for speaking plausible even to reluctant
children.What distinguishes a language game from other communicative activities in the primary EFL
classroom? Certainly, language games are fun. But all activities in a
primary classroom should be. Games are also task based: English is a tool for the children to reach a
goal which is not directly language related. Craft activities in the target language are also an example
of this, as are songs. But that doesn't make them games. A stricter definition is necessary for the
purpose of a language games book.
What differentiates language games from other activities in the EFL classroom is the presence
of a visible set of rules which guide the children's actions, and an element of strategy-children must
successfully apply their language (and other) skills. Games can be competitive, but this is not a
precondition. Children can also employ their language skills strategically in co-operative games,
where a group works together to achieve certain goals.
Language games are a healthy challenge to a child's analytical thought. The rules of the game
set clear limits within which the children's natural decision-making processes must function. With
beginners, some games can resemble 'fun' drills, with the decision making reduced to substitution of a
single word in a phrase. However, even in such cases, children are required to make individual
choices based on specific language criteria which form part of the rules of the game. The key to a
successful language game is that these rules are clear and the ultimate goal is well defined. Of course,
the game must be fun, whether played in English or the children's mother tongue.
Integrating games into the syllabus
Although it would be conceivable to teach an English course solely based on games, most
teachers have an accompanying textbook which they are required to work through over the course of
the year. Games can either supplement the core material or (depending on the flexibility of the
programme) replace activities which you dislike or feel uncomfortable with.
It is important for you to read your coursebooks or syllabus closely. Are there certain areas which
appear weak? Perhaps there are aspects of the language (often functions) which are not covered in the
core curriculum. A game can fill the gap. If your syllabus is based on language structures, the topic-
based games in this book can make it more interesting for children.
But, most important, games can make your lesson planning easier. Once you have played the games a
few times and feel comfortable with them, you will be able to insert them into your programme with
very little preparation, especially if you have made materials which can be used more than once.
Games can serve as a valuable backup if you go through your material too quickly or if
something unexpected happens, for example, your colleague is ill and you need to cover her class as
well as yours. They can help you control the rhythm of your lesson and get a group of unmotivated
children up and moving around, participating in your class, and being more receptive to the rest of the
lesson.
 You can use language games to introduce new material, to practise recently learnt language
items, to introduce or practise certain themes, or to relax or energize a class. Some can be used for all
of these. Be very clear about what you expect of the children. The language focus alone is not enough
to decide on a game. Consider the children's active and passive language knowledge in relation to
what the game requires. Are full sentences or one-word answers sufficient? How strict are the
contexts? Is there a large amount of choice for the children or are the responses closely defined? Do
the games require active language production or simply passive understanding?
How you use a language game will ultimately depend on the 'personality' of the group of
children. Do the children have a long attention span? Are they very active? What is the boy/girl ratio?
(Sometimes girls and boys will refuse to play on the same team or to hold hands.) Also consider
external factors such as the time of day the English lesson is held, and what happens before and after
it. Is your lesson a part of the regular school day, or is it held in the late afternoon after a long day of
school, homework, and other activities? Remember, too, to distinguish between 'rousing' and 'settling
games. Gordon Lewis and Gunter Bedson, Games for children, Gordon Lewis, Gunther Bedson
Oxford University Press, 20 mai 2013, pag 6 'Rousers' wake a class up. They get the adrenalin going.
Typical trousers' are movement games and games where there is an element of competition. Guessing
games also tend to get children excited, as do games which require the children to speak. Bear in mind
that an active game may get excess energy out of one group and actually settle them. However, it
could backfire and excite another group so much that they go wild and lose all control.
'Settlers', on the other hand, calm a class down. Typical 'settlers' are craft activities and games which
focus on listening. Writing games also tend to settle a class, unless, of course, they are combined with
other stirring elements, for example, running to the blackboard. Board games can settle a group as
well. The difference between 'rousers' and 'settlers' is not always clear. It depends on how you decide
to play the game. Splitting a large group into pairs can make a rouser' into a 'settler', and can prevent
children who are waiting for their turn from getting bored.
Before choosing a game, you should also consider safety. Is the space big enough for a lively
movement game? Can the children fall and injure themselves? Is the floor dirty and not fit for sitting
on?
Safety is also a matter of control. The children must know their boundaries and respect your
authority. If a class is particularly unruly you should consider leaving out activities which could lead
to pushing or throwing objects. These are really questions of common sense.
Interactive games and activities possess features that are beneficial for teaching
vocabulary. Studies show that games in the classroom serve as effective approaches to
promote learning. McCallum (1980:78) notes that games can act as tools for reinforcement, review,
and enrichment. Playing games helps enhance vocabulary exposure since students are
required to utilize language elements and repeat structures, which aids in memory retention
and recall, thereby advancing all four language skills and improving vocabulary
acquisition. Many vocabulary games offer students thorough and relevant practice with the
language by engaging them in using the language actively rather than merely concentrating
on correct forms (Lee, 1995: 78). Hadfield (1984: 127) echoes this sentiment, indicating that games
can create moments for genuine communication and connect classroom activities
with the outside world. An additional significant benefit of engaging activities is that they involve
every student in the educational experience and foster collaboration, camaraderie, competition,
and sharing turns. Such activities create a chance for learners to work together and assist one
another, even if they aren’t aware that they are gaining knowledge. When
students participate in games as pairs or teams, they can acknowledge and value the input of their
peers while employing skills that build teamwork. In student-focused activities, participants take
on an active part, allowing them to enhance their abilities to express differing opinions
respectfully, seek assistance, and collaborate with others.As games offer additional
interactions with targeted vocabulary, they become enjoyable, competitive, and thus,
memorable experiences. Uberman (1998:18) states that engaging in vocabulary
games creates a pleasant and entertaining educational atmosphere, allowing students to retain
information more quickly and effectively due to the engaging nature of these activities.
Amusing and captivating, games help sustain learners' enthusiasm for acquiring vocabulary
and encourage them to enthusiastically join in and actively participate in their educational
experiences. Moreover, games tap into various types of intelligence, such as visual
intelligence through drawing activities, interpersonal intelligence through collaboration with peers,
and kinesthetic intelligence through interactive components like cards.
Conversely, Toth suggests that some view games merely as "leisure activities in which
children aren’t genuinely 'studying' English." They often lack seriousness and are frequently
"significantly sidelined, tending to be utilized for temporary educational purposes – rather
than as tools for genuine learning" (Cook, 2000: 183).
Additionally, two important concerns are related to noise and available space. First,
playing games that promote speaking will inevitably create noise in the classroom. Second, certain
classrooms face limitations in space that make it challenging to rearrange for game playing.
Another factor to consider is the aspect of time, as games can require a significant amount of it.
For educators who are juggling various responsibilities and a rapid curriculum, locating time for
play within the classroom can be challenging—let alone meaningful play that enhances students'
understanding. Given that the advantages mentioned earlier surpass the concerns, we
can deduce that interactive games and activities serve as a valuable method for
teaching vocabulary. When students find enjoyment in their learning environment, they are more
engaged and attentive during the activities, leading to improved feelings and performance
both during and after the game. Such activities not only sustain students' interest but also enable
them to grasp new vocabulary more accurately. Through dynamic, interactive play, students have
the opportunity to resolve doubts without feeling awkward or exposed.
Thus, Lee (1995:78) argues that games should not be viewed as mere “fillers during
idle moments when the teacher and students have no other tasks”. Instead, they should be central
to the instruction of languages broadly and the teaching of vocabulary specifically (Uberman,
1998: 20).

2.2.1. Interactive games and activities: classification and characteristics

Hadfield (2003) defines game as "an activity with rules, a goal and element of fun." Harmer (199, p.
101) states: "games are a vital part of a teacher's equipment, not only for the language practice they
provide, but also for the therapeutic effect they have”. They can be used at any stage of a class to
provide an amusing and challenging respite from other classroom activities and are especially useful
at the end of a long day to send students away feeling cheerful about their English class. Games do
not provide only fun but also create a context for students to use English fast and easily. Through
games, students are put in real situations, and they learn words by doing something; this is a good way
to make their understanding about English much more easily, because fun activities will help them
remember the material taught by the teacher. Allen (1983, p. 4) said that “there is truth in the belief
that experience is the best vocabulary teacher”. Experiencing various fun activities makes students
learn and memorize lots of words. Facing different situations in which language is used, students will
deal with the new vocabulary more easily.

IV. COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES

For many years I have been teaching English as a foreign language teacher to different age groups
and at various levels of proficiency. Most of the activities presented have been tried out in several
forms, and the form described here is certainly not the final one. Activities are invented by teachers,
educators, or else, but we rarely know who exactly invented them. Like games or folk songs they are
handed on from teacher to teacher. It has also happened that I have found activities described
elsewhere which I thought I had invented. I always try to find meaningful activities which should
awaken students’ interest, and make them identify with the situation in which they are immersed.
Traditional textbook exercises – however necessary they may be for pre-communicative grammar
practice – do not as a rule forge a link between the learners and the foreign language in such a way
that the learners identify with it. Meaningful activities on a personal level can be a step towards this
identification, which improves performance and generates interest. And, of course, talking about
something which affects them personally is eminently motivating for students. Furthermore, learning
a foreign language is not just a matter of memorizing a different set of names for the things around us;
it is also an educational experience. Since our language is closely linked to our personality and
culture, why not use the process of acquiring a new language to gain further insights into our
personality and culture? This does not mean that students of a foreign language should submit to
psychological exercises or probing interviews, but simply that, for example, learning to talk about
their likes and dislikes may bring about a greater awareness of their values and aims in life. Learning
is more effective if the learners are involved in the process. The degree of “learner activity”, among
other things depends on the type of material they are working on. The students’ curiosity can be
aroused by texts or pictures containing discrepancies or mistakes, or by missing or muddled
information, and this curiosity leads to the wish to find out, to put right or to complete. Learner
activity in a more literal sense of the word can also imply doing and making things; for example,
producing a radio program forces the students to read, write and talk in the foreign language as well as
letting them “ play” with CD players, sound effects and music. Setting up an opinion poll in the
classroom is also an ambitious vehicle for active learner participation; it makes students interview
each other, it literally gets them out of their seats and-this is very important-it culminates in a group
work, brainstorming and group puzzle. Activities for practicing a foreign language have left the
narrow path of purely structural and lexical training and have expanded into the fields of values in
education and personality building. The impact of foreign language learning on the shaping of the
learner’s personality is slowly being recognized. That is why foreign language teaching just like many
other subjects-plays an important part in education towards cooperation and empathy. As teachers we
would like our students to be sensitive towards the feelings of others and share their worries and joy.
A lot of teaching/learning situations, however, never get beyond a rational and fact-oriented stage.
Jigsaw tasks, in particular, demonstrate to the learners that cooperation is necessary. Many of the
following activities focus on the participants’ personalities and help build an atmosphere of mutual
understanding.

41 1. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1.1 . WARMING-UP EXERCISES
When people have to work together in a group it is advisable that they get to know each other a little
at the beginning. Once they have talked to each other in an introductory exercise they will be less
reluctant to cooperate in further activities. One of the pre requisites of cooperation is to know the
other people’s names. A second one is having some idea of what individual members of the group are
interested in. One important use of warming-up exercises is with new classes at the beginning of the
school year. If the teacher joins in the activities and lets the class know something about herself, the
students are more likely to accept her as a person and not just as a teacher. A second purpose of these
activities is getting students into the right mood before starting on some new task.

1.1.1. NAMES
Aims: Skills Language - speaking - questions
Other - getting to know each other’s names
Level: Beginners
Preparation: As many small slips of paper as there are students
Time: 5-10 min
Procedure: Each student writes his full name on a piece of paper. All the papers are collected and
redistributed. Everyone walks in the room asking questions to find the person. ”Are you…? Is your
name…?” They introduce their partner to the group.
1.1.2. NAME CIRCLE
Aims:
Level Groupings
Skills Language Other Beginners - speaking - statements (This is…., I’m…, That’s……) - learning
each other’s names, memory Class sitting in a circle (max 25)
Preparation: Time : For variation 2: a toy animal 5-10 min 42
Procedure: The teacher begins by giving her name. The student sitting to the left of the teacher
continues by pointing at the teacher and saying: ”This is Fred Smith, Mrs. Henderson…” Variation: 1.
Those students whose names have been forgotten have to stand up, when their name is said correctly
they can sit down 2. A toy animal can be used to relax the atmosphere handed from one person to the
other. 3. With more advanced students more complex statements can be used: “The girl in the green
pullover is Jane. The boy with glasses is Jim.”
1.1.3. THREE ADJECTIVES
Aims: Skills - speaking
Language - making conjectures, agreeing, disagreeing Other - getting to know each other better
Level: Intermediate Groupings Individuals, class Preparation None Time: 10-15 min Procedure: On a
piece of paper each student writes down three adjectives which he feels describe himself. Papers are
collected. The teacher reads out the papers. The group speculates who wrote them. It may be
advisable to revise suitable adjectives beforehand. The following adjectives should be known after
two or three years of learning English: Active, alive, angry, awful, bad, beautiful, big, black, blond,
blue, boring, brown, busy, careful, cheap, clean, clever, cold, dangerous, dark, dead, deep, difficult,
dirty, easy, empty, exact, exciting, expensive, fair, famous, fantastic, far, fast, fat, fit, free, friendly,
funny, golden, good, great, green, grey, happy, hungry, ill, intelligent, interested, interesting,
international, jealous, late, left, little, lonely, loud, lucky, neat, new, noisy, old, open, polite, pretty,
quiet, ready, red, right, rude, short, special, strange, strong, sweet, tall, terrible, thick, thirsty, tiny,
unfair, warm, weak, wet, wild, wrong, young.
1.1.4. STEM SENTENCES Aims: Skills - reading comprehension, writing, speaking Language -
basic grammatical structures, asking someone to do something Other - getting to know each other
better Level: Intermediate Groupings: Individuals 43 Preparation: Time: Procedure: One handout for
each student (see Chapter V) 15-20 min Each student fills out the handout. Handouts are read loudly
and they guess the writers.
1.1.5. 1.1.5 CHOOSING PICTURES Aims: Level: Groupings: Preparation: Time: Procedure Skills
Language Other - speaking - giving reasons, likes, dislikes - fun Beginners/intermediate Individuals
Collect about three times as many different pictures as there are students 15-20 min All the pictures
are put on a table. Each student chooses two: one of something he likes, one of something he dislikes.
They show the pictures to the class and explain why they like or dislike them.
1.1.6. 1.1.6. CLUSTERS Aims: Level: Skills Language Other - listening comprehension -
understanding - cooperation, speed of reaction, relaxation Beginners/intermediate Groupings:
Preparation: Time: Procedure Class A list of commands for the teacher; a radio or CD for background
music 15-30 min The students walk around the room while the music is playing. As soon as the
music is switched off the teacher gives a command, e.g. ”Stand together in groups of five!” Those
who can’t join are out. Possible commands: “Shake hands with as many people as possible”; “Form a
group with people of roughly the same height”; “Stand together in groups of four and agree on a 44
song you want to sing”; “Mime a scene with at least three other people”; Find people whose birthday
is in the same month as yours”. 1.1.7 Aims: Level: GROUPINGS Skills Language - listening or
reading comprehension, speaking - all elements Beginners/intermediate Groupings: Preparation:
Time: Procedure Class, groups See Chapter V 5-10 min 1. Proverb matching Each student receives
half of a proverb card and has to find the student holding the other half. Together they have to think
of a story/situation which illustrates their proverb, so that the others may guess the proverb. 1. Mini-
dialogues (see Chapter V) 2. Word building Six letter words are scrambled and three letters written
on each card. The two partners have to make up the word. Ex. MMR SUE OMH 3. Personality names
matching: Ex. WILLIAM TDE SHAKESPEARE ISAAC NEWTON SHERLOCK HOLMES 4.
Word matching: Ex. BUTTER BIRTH ICE 5. Object matching Ex. CAR LORRY BOWL FLY DAY
CREAM BUS BASKET BOX BICYCLE BAG -means of transport -containers Other possibilities
are: pets, furniture, drinks, clothes, buildings, flowers, etc. 6. Job and tools matching Ex. DENTIST
GARDENER TEACHER SECRETARY 7. Families DRILL SPADE CHALK TYPEWRITER Ex.
MR.BAKER MRS.BAKER JIM BAKER JANET BAKER HOE TEXTBOOK FILE 45 1.2.
INTERVIEWS We watch, read and listen to interviews every day. In the media the famous and not so
famous are interviewed on important issues and trivial subjects. For the advertising industry and
market research institutes, interviews are a necessity. The success of an interview depends both on the
skill of the interviewer, on her ability to ask the right question, to insist and interpret, and on the
willingness to talk on the part of the person being interviewed. In the foreign language classroom
interviews are useful not only because they force students to listen carefully but also because they are
so versatile in their subject matter. As soon as beginners know the first structures for questions (Can
you sing an English song? Have you got a car?) interviewing can begin. If everyone interviews his
neighbour all students are practicing the foreign language at the same time. 1.2.1 SELF - DIRECTED
INTERVIEWS Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language Other Intermediate Pairs 10-
30 min - writing, speaking - questions - getting to know each other Each student writes down five to
ten questions that he would like to be asked. The general context of these questions can be left open,
or the questions can be restricted to areas such as personal likes and dislikes, opinions, information
about one’s personal life, etc. The students choose partners, exchange question sheets and interview
one another using these questions. It might be quite interesting to find out in a discussion with the
whole class what kinds of questions were asked and why they were chosen. 1.2.2 GROUP
INTERVIEWS Aims Skills Language Other - speaking - asking for and giving information - group
interaction 46 Level Intermediate Groupings Time Procedure Four to six students 5-15 min In each
group a volunteer is questioned by the whole group. This activity is made more difficult and more
interesting if the person interviewed is not allowed to answer truthfully. After the questioning the
students should discuss how much these “lies” revealed and how the students felt during the
questioning. 1.2.3 GUIDED INTERVIEWS Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language
Intermediate Groups or pairs - all four skills - all elements Handouts (see Chapter V) Time Procedure
15-25 min Each group receives a handout of the answers and tries to work out the appropriate
questions. Solutions are read out loud at the end. Some examples of interview guiding worksheets are
given in Chapter V. Here are 12 answers given in an interview. Think of questions that fit the answers
and decide what the person who was interviewed is like. 1. Yes, I did. 2. This is quite true. 3. No.
Gardening. 4. I can do either, but I prefer the first. 5. I can’t answer that question. 6. Frogs and snakes
7. New Zealand, Iceland or Malta. 8. As often as possible, but I’m not very good at it yet. I need to
find someone to practice with. 9. I don’t care which. 10. I wouldn’t be able to tell one from the other.
11. Never. 12. That was the nicest thing that ever happened to me. Possible interview topics: Smoking
Quality of life Old and young under one roof 47 Single-parent families Weather Handicapped people
The best teacher I have ever had Keeping fit The right to die Illness Minorities Changing jobs
Moving house Letter-writing Favourite films Eating out Clothes Plans and ambitions Pets Saving
things Old and new things Private and public transport Wildlife protection Hunger Loneliness 1.3.
GUESSING GAMES Everybody knows guessing games. It is not only children who like guessing;
adults like guessing, too. The basic rule of guessing games is eminently simple: one person knows
something that another one wants to find out. 1.3.1 WHAT IS IT Aims Level Groupings Preparation
Skills Language Intermediate Class A - speaking - questions, making associations, giving reasons
handout is given to each student (see Chapter V) Time Procedure 5-15 min The students guess what
the drawing represents and write their answers down. 48 1.3.2 COFFEEPOTTING Aims Level Skills
Language Other - speaking - questions, giving answers - fun Beginners/Intermediate Groupings Time
Procedure Two groups of different size (one group should have one third of the total number of
students, the other two thirds) 10-15 min The groups sit down facing each other. The teacher shows
the smaller group an activity on a piece of paper (reading, skiing, etc). The members of the bigger
group have to guess the activity. In their questions they use the substitute verb “to coffeepot”. For
example: “Is coffeepotting fun in winter?” Each person in the smaller group is questioned by two
members from the other. As soon as one member thinks he has found the answer, he whispers it to the
teacher and if correct, he joins the answering group. 1.3.3 WHAT’S IN THE BOX? Aims Level
Groupings Preparation Skills Language Other Intermediate Pairs - speaking - questions, explaining
the use of an object - fun, vocabulary building As many small containers as there are students; one
little object (safety-pin, stamp, rubber) in each Time Procedure 10-30 min Each student works with a
partner. One student from each pair fetches a box and looks inside without letting his partner see what
is in the box. The second student has to guess the object. If the students don’t know the names of the
objects, a piece of paper with their name on it should be also placed in the box. 49 1.3.4 LIE
DETECTOR Aims Level Groupings Skills Language Intermediate - speaking - asking questions,
giving reasons Groups of six to seven students Time Procedure 10-15 min The students are divided
into groups. One member of each group leaves the room. In their absence the groups decide on a set
of five to eight questions they want to ask the students. These can be either personal, or factual. They
have to answer all questions truthfully, except one. The rest of the group has to decide which was the
lie. The students who went outside now return to their group. 1.4. JIGSAW TASKS Jigsaw tasks use
the same basic principle as jigsaw puzzles with one exception. Whereas the player doing a jigsaw
puzzle has all the pieces he needs in front of him, the participants in a jigsaw task have only one or a
few pieces each. As in a puzzle the individual parts, which may be sentences from a factual text, or
parts of a picture or comic strip, have to be fitted together to find the solution. In jigsaw tasks each
participant is equally important, because each holds part of the solution. That is why jigsaw tasks are
said to improve cooperation and mutual acceptance within the group. Participants have to do a lot of
talking before they are able to fit the pieces together in the right way. A modified form of jigsaw tasks
is found in “The same or different?” and “What are the differences?” in which pictures have to be
compared. Jigsaw tasks practice two different areas of skill in the foreign language. Firstly, the
students have to understand the bits of information they are given (Listening or reading
comprehension) and describe them to the rest of the group. This makes them realize how important
pronunciation and intonation are in making yourself understood. Secondly, the students have to
organize the process of finding the solution; a lot of interactional language is needed here. Because
the language elements required by jigsaw tasks are not available at beginners’ level, this type of
activity is best used with intermediate and advanced students. Pair or group work is necessary for
most jigsaw tasks. 50 1.4.1 THE SAME OR DIFFERENT Aims Level Groupings Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Class, pairs - speaking, listening comprehension - exact description Class
divided into two halves, one copy of handout A for one part, handout B for the other part; two circles
of chairs, the inner circle facing outwards, the outer circle facing inwards, the two circles facing each
other. Each handout contains 18 small drawings; some are the same in A and B, some are different.
By describing the two drawings, they have to decide if they are different of the same. The student
who has a cross next to the number of the drawing begins by describing it to his partner. After
discussing three drawings, all the students in the outer circle move to the chair on their left and
continue with a new partner. When all the drawings have been discussed, the teacher tells the class
the answers. The materials can be varied in many ways. Instead of pictures, other things can be used,
e.g. synonymous and non-synonymous sentences, symbolic drawings, words and drawings. 1.4.2
TWINS Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skill Language Intermediate Pairs 5-10 min -
speaking, listening comprehension Each student works with a partner. One student receives handout
A the other handout B. They mustn’t let their partners see their sheets. They have to find out which is
similar and which is not. If the teacher produces a number of cardboard folders which each contain a
set of instructions and picture sheets (A and B) in separate envelopes, all the students can work on
different tasks at the same time and exchange folders in order to work on more than one set. 51 1.4.3
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES? Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Pairs - speaking - exact description of a picture Handout A for half of
students, handout B to the other half 5- 10 min Each student works with a partner. One student
receives a copy of the original picture, the other a copy of the picture with minor alterations. By
describing their pictures to one another and asking questions they have to determine how many and
what differences there are between them. When they think they have found all the differences, they
compare pictures. 1.4.4 ORDERING Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language
Intermediate A - speaking - describing situations/actions shown in pictures, making suggestions Pairs
comic strip (or picture story) of at least four pictures is cut up, and the pictures pasted in random
order on two pieces of paper, so that each sheet contains half the pictures. Half the students receive
one set of pictures each, the other half the other. Time Procedure 10-15 min The students work in
pairs. Each partner has half the pictures from a comic strip. First, each student describes his pictures.
They do not show their pictures. They decide on the content of the story and agree on a sequence for
their total number of pictures. Finally, both picture sheets are compared and the solution discussed.
1.4.5 TOWN PLAN Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language Intermediate Pairs -
speaking - giving directions One town plan in two versions giving different pieces of information
Time 10-15 min 52 Procedure The students work in pairs. Each partner receives a copy of the town
plan, version A for the first student, version B for the second. The students ask each other for
information which is missing from their plan i.e. the names of some streets (A has to find London
Road, Aston Street, Rat Lane, Pen Street, Cocoa Lane, Station Square and Fair Fields; B has to find
Park Street, North Street, Nottingham Road, High Street, Milk Lane, Trent Crescent, and River
Drive. Then they write in eight other names of places, using the spaces indicated by numbers 1 to 15.
B does the same for his eight spaces, using numbers 16-30. The partners then have to find out which
numbers refer to which places by asking for directions, e.g. A: “Hoe do I get to the Chinese
restaurant?” B: “You walk up Linklow Hill and turn right into Ink Street. The restaurant is down the
street to your left. 1.4.6 Aims Level STRIP STORY Skills Language Intermediate Groupings
Preparation Class A - speaking - making suggestions, expressing one’s opinion, Asking for
confirmation story with as many sentences as there are students. Each sentence is Time written on a
separate sheet of paper. 15-30 min Procedure Each student receives a strip of paper with one sentence
on it. He is asked not to show his sentence to anybody else but to memorise it in two minutes. After
two minutes all strips are collected. The teacher briefly explains the task: “All the sentences you have
learned make up a story. Work out the story without writing anything down.” From now the teacher
steps aside and refuses to give any help. Variations: A dialogue can be used instead of the text. 1.4.7
JIGSAW GUESSING Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language Intermediate Groups -
speaking - making suggestions One puzzle to each group, the solution to which makes a word Time
5-15 min 53 Procedure Each group receives a piece of paper with questions on it. The solution to
each question is a word. All the students in the group try to make anew word out of the first letters of
the individual words they have found. As soon as the group words have been formed, they are written
on the blackboard. The first letters of all the group words give the solution to the whole puzzle. The
puzzles in Chapter V are designed for seven groups of four students each. The group solutions are: 1.
YEAR (yawn, eat, accident, ride) 2. APPLE (afternoon, pear postman, like, elephant) 3. DESK 4.
INTO 5. LAMP (dear, eleven, song, knife) (Indian, name, tea, old) (love, answer, moon, pen) 6.
OVER (orange, valley, end, rich) 7. HAND (happy, Australia, new, difficult) The first letters of the
group words form HOLIDAY(read backwards from group 7 to 1). 1.4.8 PARTNER PUZZLE Aims
Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language Intermediate Pairs As - speaking - describing the
position of puzzle pieces many copies of the picture as students (see Chapter V). Half of the
envelopes photocopies should be cut up as indicated and put in separate Time Procedure 10-15 min
Each student works with a partner. One student in each pair receives the complete picture, which he
must not show to his partner; the other student gets the puzzle pieces. The first student has to tell the
second how to arrange the pieces; neither is allowed to see what the other is doing. 1.5.
QUESTIONING ACTIVITIES As soon as students are able to produce yes/no and wh-questions most
of these activities can be used. 54 1.5.1 WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF? Aims Level Groupings
Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Class - speaking - if clauses, making
conjectures, asking for confirmation About twice as many slips of paper with an event/situation
written on them as there are students. 10-15 min Every student receives one or two slips of paper
with sentences like: “What would happen if a shop gave away its goods free every Wednesday? What
would you do if you won a trip to a city of your choice?” One student starts by reading out his
question and then asks another student to answer it. The second student continues by answering or
asking a third student to answer the first student’s question. If he has answered the question he may
then read out his own question for somebody else to answer. The activity is finished when all the
questions have been read out and answered. Preparation The students can prepare their own
questions. Some more suggestions: What would happen if everybody who told a lie turned green? if
people could get a driving license at 14? if girls had to do military service? if men were not allowed
to become doctors or pilots? if children over 10 were allowed to vote? if gold was found in your
area? if a film was made in your school? if headmasters had to be elected by teachers and students?
What would you do if you were invited to the Queen’s garden party? if a photo of yours won first
prize at an exhibition? if your little sister of 14 told you she was pregnant? if you saw your teacher
picking apples from your neighbour’s tree? if it rained every day of your holiday? if you got a love
letter from somebody you did not know? if you found a snake under your bed? if you got lost on a
walk in the woods? if you were not able to remember numbers? if you found a 100$ bill in a library
book? if you suddenly found out you could become invisible by eating spinach? if a young
man/woman came up to you, gave you a rose and said that you were the loveliest person he had seen
for a long time? 55 if you went to the restaurant and noticed you had forgotten your wallet at home?
if you could not sleep at night? 1.5.2 QUESTION GAME Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills
Language Intermediate Groups of six students - speaking, reading comprehension, listening
comprehension - questions and answers Two dice of different colours, a question board (see Chapter
V), and 10(or 15) question cards (see Chapter V)for each group Time Procedure 15-30 min Each
group receives the dice, question board, and question cards. The question cards are put in piles face
down next to the numbers 1 to 5 on the question board. Each student in the group is given a number
from 1 to 6. Taking turns, each student throws the dice. One die indicates the question to be asked(the
one on top of the pile),the other, the person who must answer the question. If the “question-die”
shows “6”, the person whose turn it is may ask a question of the student whose number was thrown
with the “student-die”. The exercise is finished when everybody has answered every question. 1.5.3
FIND SOMEONE WHO Aims Level Time Groupings Skills Language Other Intermediate 10-20 min
- speaking - questions - getting to know each other Individuals, class Preparation Procedure Handout
(see chapter V) Each student receives a handout. Everyone walks around the room and questions
other people about things on the handout. As soon as somebody finds another student who answers
“yes” to one of the questions, he writes his name in the space and goes on to question someone else,
because each name may only be used once. If a student overhears somebody answering “yes” to
another student he is not allowed to use that name. After a given time (15 min.) or when someone
finishes the handout the activity stops. Students read out what they have found out. They can preface
their report with :”I was surprised that X liked…”, or “I never thought that Y liked…”. 56 1.5.4
SOMETHING ELSE Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language Other Intermediate -
speaking - conditional - thinking about oneself, getting to know each other, imagination Individuals
or groups 10-20 min The teacher presents the activity: “Suppose you were something else entirely,
e.g. an animal, or a musical instrument. Just think what you would like to be and why, when I tell you
the categories. Possible categories are: colours, day of the week, kinds of weather, musical
instruments, months, countries, cities, articles of clothing, songs, fruits, flowers, kinds of literature,
pieces of furniture, food, toys, etc. Variations: It can also be played as a guessing game. Two students
are asked to leave the classroom while the rest of the class agree on a person to be guessed. When the
two students are called back in they ask questions such as: “What would the person be if he or she
were an animal? a colour? a building? a landscape? a piece of music? a flower? etc. From the
answers, characteristics of the person can be deduced and his or her identity guessed. If the person to
be guessed is present he can comment on the comparisons made, e.g. “I was surprised, flattered,
embarrassed etc” 1.5.5 QUESTION AND ANSWER CARDS Aims Level Groupings Preparation
Time Procedure Skills Language Other Intermediate Pairs One - speaking - formulating questions -
learning something about English-speaking countries card per student 10-15 min The students work
in pairs. They question each other in turns about the things specified on the card. Variations 1. Each
student receives a different card and has to find his partner before he can start with the questions. 57
2. The students make up their own cards about subjects dealt with in the class. For this they should
use the second type of cards, where answers are not given.(see Chapter V) 2. DISCUSSIONS AND
DECISIONS 2.1. RANKING EXERCISES These exercises require students to put a certain number
of items from a given list into an order of importance or preference. This rearrangement phase is
usually followed by a period of discussions, when students explain or defend their choices in pairs or
small groups. Ranking exercises practise interactive language, for instance agreeing, comparing,
contradicting, disagreeing, giving reasons. As in some jigsaw tasks the students may experience a
difference of opinion and may be stimulated to discuss these differences. Reluctant students can be
made to discuss their lists in detail if they are asked to produce an integrated list of rankings for their
group. A variety of procedures for using ranking exercises can be suggested. The first step remains
the same for all procedures: the students are made familiar with the task. Work on a ranking exercise
can be continued in one of the following ways:- Each student works on his own and writes down his
solutions. These lists are then compared and discussed in pairs, in small groups or with the whole
class.- When each student has finished his list, the students sit down together in small groups and try
to agree on a common listing, which has to be presented and defended in a final general discussion.-
Groups of increasing size (two members, then four, then eight) discuss the lists and aim for an agreed
list at each stage- All students whose lists are similar work together in groups and try to find as many
arguments as possible for their ranking order. A final discussion with the class follows. 2.1.1 RANK
ORDER Aims Level Skills Language Other - reading comprehension, speaking - expressing likes and
dislikes, giving reasons, expressing certainty and uncertainty - thinking about one’s own value
Intermediate/advanced Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Individuals (pairs and groups also
possible) Handout (see Chapter V) 15-20 min Each student receives a handout. He fills it in
according to the instructions, stating not only his first choice, but also numbering all the choices in
order of preference (10 min). 58 When all the items have been ranked students share their results with
their neighbour or with the whole class. Depending on the interests of the participants this step can
lead to a discussion by individual members of the class of what is considered important. Variations If
the questions suggested in Chapter V are considered too personal, alternatives can easily be found,
e.g. pollution, social problems, political attitudes, etc. 2.1.2 QUALITIES Aims Level Groupings
Skills Language Other Intermediate - speaking - describing personal qualities, stating preferences,
asking for and giving reasons, contradicting, comparative and superlative - thinking about one’s own
values Individuals, groups, then the whole class Time Procedure 10-20 min The teacher presents the
group with the following list, either writing it on the board or on the overhead projector, or
distributing it on handouts: reliability being a good listener strength honesty intelligence generosity
caution being funny stubbornness helpfulness Each student should think about how important he
considers each quality. He then rearranges the list starting with the most important. Then students sit
in small groups and talk about their ranking. A group consensus should be aimed at. The whole class
aims to find a ranking order for the qualities which everyone agrees. Variations: The same procedure
can be followed for different lists, which have been adapted to group interests and the age of
students. suggestions : reasons for wanting/keeping a pet, things to make a holiday worthwhile,
qualities of a good parent, car, friends, politicians, scientists, nurses, doctors, etc. 59 2.1.3 DESERT
ISLAND Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language - speaking - giving and asking for
reasons, making suggestions, agreeing and disagreeing, if- clauses Beginners/Intermediate Pairs,
class 10-20 min The teacher tells the class about the situation and sets the task: “You are stranded on
a desert island in the Pacific. All you have is the swim-suit and sandals you are wearing. There is
food and water on the island but nothing else. Here is a list of things you may find useful. Choose the
eight most useful items and rank them in order of usefulness: a box of matches a magnifying glass an
axe a bottle of whisky an atlas some metal knitting-needles a transistor radio with batteries a nylon
tent a camera and five rolls of film ointment for cuts and burns a saucepan a knife and a fork 20
metres of nylon rope a blanket a watch a towel a pencil and paper Work with a partner. You have
eight minutes.” The students present their solutions and defend their choices against the others’
arguments. 2.1.4 NASA GAME Aims Level Skills Language - speaking - giving and asking for
reasons, expressing certainty Intermediate/advanced and uncertainty, making objections 60
Individuals, pairs Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Handouts (see Chapter V) 10-15 min Each
student has to rank the 15 items on the handout. (Note that the moon has no atmosphere, so it is
impossible to make fire or transmit sound signals; the moon has no magnetic poles) Each student then
compares his solutions with his neighbour and they try to arrive at a common ranking. 2.1.5
PERSONALITIES Aims Level Time Procedure Skills Language Beginners 10-15 min - speaking -
giving reasons, making comparison The teacher writes the following list on the board: Mahatma
Gandhi Mao Tse Tung William Shakespeare Queen Elisabeth I Karl Marx Alfred Hitchcock Margaret
Thatcher Mohammed Ali Buffalo Bill John Travolta Ronald Reagan Miss Piggy Elvis Presley Liv
Ullmann Johann Sebastian Bach David Copperfield Frank Sinatra Naomi Campbell Charles Dickens
Walt Disney Winston Churchill Fidel Castro The students are asked to select the six personalities they
would like to invite to their classroom to give a talk. The papers are collected. 61 The activity can be
continued by asking the students to write interview questions they would like to ask the person of
their choice. 2.1.6 JOB PRESTIGE Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language
Intermediate/advanced Pairs 15-20 min - speaking - asking for and giving reasons, agreeing and
disagreeing The teacher outlines the task. ”You are going to be given a list of 14 jobs. You have to
rank them according to two criteria. First arrange them in the order in which these jobs are regarded
and paid in our society. Secondly make a list in which you show how important you think each job
should be.” dentist taxi driver secretary school teacher policeman lawyer journalist university
professor actor nurse shop-assistant librarian engineer farmer Students work in pairs. They should try
to reach an agreement. The results are presented to the class. The two lists are written on the board:
the first is probably similar in most cases; however the second may differ wildly and should stimulate
a discussion. 2.2. DISCUSSION GAMES Not all the activities from this part are games in a narrow
sense of the word; in some cases they are game-like exercises that lead to discussions. Quite often the
same exercise can be used for discussion of serious questions as well as for playing with ideas and
language. The main intention of all these exercises is, of course, to get the students talk 62 and
stimulate their interest and imagination. Nearly all of them demand a certain degree of flexibility in
the foreign language and are structured in such a way that everyone will get a turn. To get everybody
involved in the discussion may be occasionally difficult. The teacher can hand round (e.g. a knotted
scarf or a paper weight) and agree on the rule that whoever is holding the object has to contribute to
the discussion. Many of the discussion games may lead to oral and written follow-up activities.
Essays, their own advertisements, panel discussions can follow after the games. 2.2.1 WHAT IS
BEING ADVERTISED? Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language Intermediate Pairs A -
speaking, writing - making conjectures, expressing probability, giving reasons number of different
advertisements (cut out from magazines) from which all names and pictures have been removed, half
Time as many as students. 15-20 min Procedure Each pair of students receives one advertisement.
The partners discuss what product it could be for and why. One of each pair takes notes. After about 5
minutes the advertisements are exchanged, and the pairs do the same. Taking turns the students show
their second advertisement to the rest of the class and report their ideas about the product being
advertised. The other two students who had this ad first, say where they agree or disagree. When all
the ads have been discussed the teacher gives the solutions (by presenting the cut out parts). 2.2.2
MAD DISCUSSIONS Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language Intermediate Teams -
speaking - giving reasons, describing advantages and disadvantages,
contradicting Pieces of paper with one word written on them Time 20-30 min
63 Procedure The class is divided into two teams. One student from each team
comes forward. Each chooses a piece of paper with a topic on it. He then has
three minutes to argue with the student from the other team about which is
more important for mankind, e.g. Alsatians or pizzas. Possible topics: flowers,
New York, operas, ships, birthday cards, passports, watches, modern art,
detective novels, schools, socks, zips, paper, the wheel, etc. 2.2.3 SECRET
TOPIC Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language Advanced Pairs,
class 10-20 min - speaking - all elements Two students agree on a topic they
want to talk about without telling the others what it is. The two students start
discussing. The others listen. Anyone who thinks he knows what they are
talking about joins in their conversation. When about a third of the class have
joined in, the game is stopped. Variations Students who think they know the
topic write it on a piece of paper and show it to the two students before they
are accepted. 2.2.4 WORD WIZARD Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure
Skills Language Intermediate Individuals, pairs 10-15 min - speaking, writing -
individual words The teacher asks the class to imagine the following situation:
“A wizard has taken away all the words from the world. Everybody can keep
just four words. Choose four words which you would like to keep and write
them down.” Each student finds a partner and tries to communicate using only
his four words. The pairs share their words with each other so that now they
both have eight words to use. Each student shares his eight words with another
to have 16 words. They try to write a poem with these words. 64 2.2.5 USES
AND ABUSES Aims Skills - speaking Language - declarative sentences, -ing
form Level Intermediate Groupings Teams Time 10-15 min Procedure The
teacher and the class prepare a list (of about 20 items), which are written up by
the secretaries of the two groups. List A contains people and animals, list B
objects. Example: A B teacher book mother walking stick shop-assistant plaster
baby 50 p coin elephant pen crocodile loaf of bread soldier car dustman cactus
farmer apple pie old woman glass of beer nurse safety pin The two teams sit
facing each other. The secretary stars by inserting one word from list A and one
from list B into one of the two sentence patterns: What can a/an A do with a/an
B? Why does a/an A need a/an B? The students in team 2 must quickly answer.
Then their secretary makes up a new question for team 1. The secretary
crosses out the used words. The game is over when all the words have been
used. 2.2.6 SHRINKING STORY Aims Skills - speaking, listening comprehension
Language - all elements Level Intermediate Groupings Class Preparation Story
(see chapter V) or picture Time 20-30 min 65 Procedure Five students are
asked to leave the room. The rest of the class is read a story or played a
recording. They listen to the story twice, and after the second one they agree
on a few important points which a summary of the story should contain. These
are written down by everyone. The first student is asked to come in and listens
to the story once. The second student is called in and hears the story from the
first student while the class takes notes following which of the important points
have been mentioned. Student 2 tells it to student 3, 3 to 4 and 4 to 5. Student
5 tells it to the class. Using their notes the students who were listening report
the changes in the story. Variations Instead of telling a story, a picture could be
drawn by the last student. 2.2.7 MAGIC SHOP Aims Level Groupings
Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate/advanced
Individuals Slips - speaking - if-clauses, arguing, praising of paper with positive
human qualities three times as many as students 15-20 min Each student
receives 3 slips of paper with positive human qualities. E.g. honesty,
intelligence, fairness, humour, beauty, curiosity, cheerfulness, optimism,
perseverance, politeness, hospitality, wisdom, thoughtfulness, friendliness,
adaptability, charity, justice, helpfulness, health, gentleness. Each student
decides which of the three he would like to keep and which to exchange with
others. Students then barter with different people. After 10 min. student report
on which qualities they received. 2.2.8 PINK VERSUS BROWN Aims Level
Groupings Time Skills Language Intermediate Groups, pairs 15-25 min -
speaking - contradicting, praising, giving reasons 66 Procedure Students whose
favourite colours are the same should work together. They describe to each
other why they like this particular colour better than any other. Students leave
their groups and pair up with someone from a different group. Each partner
argues for his colour and tries to convince the other of its qualities. 2.2.9
OPTIMISTS AND PESSIMISTS Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Two teams 10-15 min - speaking - expressing different
points of view One student from team 1 (optimists) begins by giving a
statement, e.g. “: It is good for your health if you do some sports”. Then one
student from the other group gives the other point of view, e.g. “But sports like
boxing or car racing are dangerous.” The pessimists continue with a pessimistic
statement, which the optimists have to react to. After a few minutes of
exchanging statements, the students are asked if they found it difficult to adopt
one point of view throughout. They could also mention those statements which
went against their personal viewpoint. 2.2.10 PEOPLE Aims Level Groupings
Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate - speaking - past
tense, present tense, describing s omeone Groups of three to four students
Photos of different people (cut out from magazines or own) 15-25 min Each
group receives a photo and is asked to write a curriculum vitae for the person
in the picture. The students should mainly imagine the person’s interests and
lifestyle. When they have finished with the first picture, photos are exchanged
between groups. Each group works with 3 pictures. The results of the group
work are read out and discussed. Which lives were seen in a similar way by the
three groups? Which pictures were interpreted differently? 67 2.2.11
DISCUSSION WHEEL Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Groups One of six - speaking - discussing handout for
each group (see Chapter V) Three dice per group 15-25 min Each group
member is given a number from 1 to 6. The dice are thrown; two dice indicate
the students who start the discussion, the third die indicates the topic they
have to talk about. After a short while the other group members can join the
discussion. Every topic on the wheel should be discussed at least once. If the
topic die shows 5, the two students chose their own topic. Variations Instead of
writing the topics on the wheel, they can be put on small cards and laid face
down on the wheel. 2.3 VALUES CLARIFICATION TECHNIQUES The activities
in this section are based on the principle of the “values clarification approach”
which originated in the USA. It is one of the assumptions of this approach that
school must help young people to become aware of their own values and to act
according to them. The psychologist Louis Raths distinguishes among three
main stages in this process: “Prizing one’s belief and behaviours,…choosing
one’s beliefs and behaviours,… acting on one’s beliefs (Simon et al 1972, p.19)
Adults as well as young people may not always be consciously aware of their
beliefs and so learners of all ages may find these activities interesting in
helping them discover something about themselves. This can be a very
motivating experience, because the students feel they are communicating
about something really meaningful, as well as being taken seriously as people.
2.3.1. LIFESTYLE Aims Level Skills Language - speaking - giving reasons, likes
and dislikes Beginners/intermediate Groupings Preparation Time Pairs
important for them. Students are asked beforehand to bring along 3 objects
that are 10-15 min 68 Procedure Students work with a partner. Each of them
explains the use and importance of their three objects. Both partners then talk
about the similarities and differences of their choices. Variation Before the
paired discussion starts, a kind of speculating or guessing game can be
conducted, where the three objects of a student whose identity is not revealed
are shown, and suggestions about their significance are made. 2.3.2 AIMS IN
LIFE Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language
Intermediate Individuals, groups A - writing, speaking - giving reasons,
expressing intentions and desires handout for each student (see Chapter V) 15-
20 min Each student fills in the handout by first choosing the area of his aims,
i.e. travel or family, etc, and then by making a few notes on what he wants to
achieve within this area in the time specified. When everybody has filled in the
handout with at least one aim for each of the three time periods given, small
groups are formed. The students discuss and defend their aims in the groups.
2.3.3 TWENTY THINGS I’D LIKE TO DO Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure
Skills Language Intermediate Individuals 20-30 min - writing, speaking -
expressing likes and dislikes The students are asked to write a list of 20 things
they would like to do. These can be ordinary activities like eating a lot of ice
cream, or more exotic dreams like going on a trip in a balloon. They should jot
down anything that comes into their mind, writing the activities one under the
other. These lists remain private. They code their lists by putting one or more of
the following symbols in front of them: £ if the activity is expensive 69 if WF A
M or F X the activity involves other people (with friends) do it on their own
(alone) if they if they if the think mother or father would enjoy it too activity is
physically or mentally harmful (smoking) Then the students should think about
the distribution of these symbols on their lists and continue the following stem
sentences: I have learned from this exercise that………………………… I am
surprised that……………………………………………. I am pleased that
……………………………………………... I am worried
that……………………………………………… I don’t mind
that……………………………………………… They are collected by the teacher and
individual one are read out, provide they contain a stimulus for discussion.
2.3.4 SPENDING MONEY Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Individuals, groups 10-25 min - speaking - asking for
and giving reasons Each student writes down what he would spend a sum of
money on, e.g. 1 $, 5$, 20$, 50$, 100$, 1000$, 5000$ and 100000$. Students
sit together in small groups and describe what they have decided to buy with a
particular sum of money and why they would like to make this purchase.
Variations Students are given choices for each sum. E.g. For 5$ you could buy a
cinema ticket, a paperback novel, a pack of cards, a T-shirt, a CD, a Chinese
meal, a pot plant, etc. 2.3.5 UNFINISHED SENTENCES Aims Level Groupings
Skills Language Intermediate Pairs - speaking, reading comprehension -
expressing emotions and thoughts, agreeing/disagreeing (two teams of equal
size) Time 10-20 min 70 Procedure The class is divided into two teams of equal
size. The chairs are arranged in two circles, one inside the other, facing each
other. Each student receives a handout. The two students facing each other
continue the first on the handout and talk about their sentence. Then the
students in the outer circle all move one chair to the left and do the second
sentence with a new partner. They continue moving on after each sentence
until all sentences have been discussed. 2.3.6 I’D RATHER BE Aims Level
Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Class A -
speaking - asking for and giving reasons list of word pairs (nouns, adjectives) 5-
15 min The teacher reads out pairs of “opposites” from her list and asks the
students which ones they would rather be. The students should also give a
reason for their choices. Possible word pairs: soft glass water bitter beauty -
hard - wood - fire - sweet - ugliness hammer - nail rose - cactus square cold -
round - hot sparrow - snail hawk - mouse chicken - egg candle - neon light sun -
moon village - city lemon - potato Variations The same activity is possible with
verbs: e.g. sell - buy make - break arrive – leave etc. 71 2.3.7 IDEAL DAY Aims
Level Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Individuals 20-
30 min - writing, listening, reading - all elements Students are asked to write a
description of an ideal day. They can choose freely the places they would like to
be in, their activities and the company they would like to have. Some students
read out their work. Variations: Other topics to write about: my ideal house, an
ideal holiday, an ideal friend. 2.4 THINKING STRATEGIES In the last decade
Edward de Bono has repeatedly asked that thinking should be taught in
schools. His main intention is to change our rigid way of thinking and make us
learn to think creatively. Some of the activities are taken from his thinking
course for schools (de Bono 1973). The thinking strategies included here
resemble in the fact that different ideas have to be collected by the participants
in the first stage. Then these ideas have to be ordered and evaluated. It is
obvious that there is ample opportunity to use the foreign language at both
stages. Apart from the speech acts of agreeing and disagreeing, suggesting,
etc. these exercises practice all forms of comparison and the conditional. 2.4.1
PMI Aims Level Groupings Time Skills Language Intermediate Individuals,
pairs, class 10-20 min - speaking, writing - conditional, comparatives, s
uggestions 72 Procedure The students have to think of the plus points (P),
minus points (M), and interesting points (I)of an idea. The teacher gives the
class an idea and then everybody works on their own for a few minutes.
Possible ideas: A new law is passed that forbids smoking in public places. Every
family is only allowed to have meat once a week. People should wear badges to
show what mood they are in. To save energy public buildings like post offices,
stations, schools and offices are no longer heated. A scientist discovers a way of
making gold cheaply. Boys are only allowed to wear green clothes, girls only
blue clothes. Planes do not work anymore. They all crash after take-off.
Students work in pairs and share their ideas. Then the ideas are shared with
the class. 2.4.2 CONSEQUENCES Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time
Procedure Skills Language Intermediate - speaking - future tense, conditional
Groups of three to six students, class As many cards with an action as groups
10-20 min The teacher divides the class into groups. She gives each group an
action card. Examples: A 25-hour working week is introduced. A lorry driver
empties a thankful of poisonous waste into the river near a town. Animal
merchants catch the last animals of a dying species and sell them to zoos in
Europe and North America. Men can get maternity leave like women. Robots
that can do housework are built. Scientists discover that cancer is caused by
pollution. A group of boys always use the bus or tram without paying. Each
group now has to think of all the possible long-term and short-term
consequences this action may have. The group secretary writes down all the
consequences. When the group cannot think of any more consequences they
exchange cards with another group. A class discussion ends the activity. 73
2.4.3 ALTERNATIVES Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Class List - speaking, writing - conditional, making
suggestions of problem situations for the teacher 5-20 min The teacher
presents the situation to the class and asks the students to think of as many
courses of action as possible for the people involved. Individual students
present their suggestions and a complete list is compiled on the board.
Students work together in small groups and rank all the suggestions in order of
preference. Then they discuss what consequences the five most popular
suggestions will have. The rank orders and consequences of individual groups
are compared. Possible problem situations: 1. You hear from a friend that
someone is saying nasty things about you. What can you do? 2. Some money
was stolen in the classroom recently. The thief hasn’t been found yet. Your
teacher treats you differently from before and you think she suspects you took
the money. You didn’t, but you know who took it. What do you do? 3. Your friend
has bought a new coat. You think it is really ugly and does not suit her.
However, you know it was very expensive and your friend is easily offended.
What can you say? 4. You see someone dumping rubbish in the countryside.
What can you say? 5. Someone in your class is giving a party. Everyone has
been invited except you. What can you do? 6. You forgot about an important
appointment with your boss (teacher) and have just realized that you should
have met him two hours ago at the “Peking Restaurant”. What can you do?
2.4.4 VIEWPOINTS Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Skills Language
Intermediate - speaking - all Groups of 3-5 students One elements handout for
each group (see Chapter V) 15-20 min 74 Procedure The teacher divides the
class into small groups and presents the situation: Mary Taylor, a 35 year-old
housewife, would like to go back to her job, teaching physics and mathematics,
after an eight year break. Imagine what her husband, her eight year-old
daughter, her mother-in-law, her parents and the headmaster might feel about
the situation. The teacher writes the names, ages and jobs of the people
mentioned in the situation on the board, and assigns one of these people to
each group. The students discuss among themselves what they think this
particular person might feel. The group secretary in each group takes notes.
The teacher gives each group that part of the handout which concerns their
person. (see Chapter V). They compare their own ideas with those on the
handout. One person from each group comes forward. These students sit in a
circle in the middle of the class and hold a conversation in which the put their
arguments and feelings forward. 2.5 PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITIES In the
following activities the learners have to find solutions to various types of
problems. Most of the activities require pair or group work where the students
have to use the foreign language in a very creative way while going through the
exercises. 2.5.1 RESCUE Aims Level Groupings Time Procedure The situation is
presented. Skills Language - speaking - stating an opinion, giving and asking
for reasons, agreeing, disagreeing, comparisons Intermediate/advanced Groups
of five to eight students 10-20 min “The Earth is doomed. All life is going to
perish in two days due to radiation. A spaceship from another solar system
lands and offers to rescue twelve people, who could start a new world on an
empty planet very much like Earth. Imagine you are the selection committee
and you have to decide who may be rescued. Think of a list of criteria which
you would use in your decision. 75 Each group discusses the problem and tries
to work out a list. They present their lists to the class. Class discussion follows.
2.5.2 DESPERATE DECISION Aims Level Skills Language - reading
comprehension, speaking - making suggestions, stating possibilities,
agreeing/disagreeing Intermediate/advanced Groupings Preparation Time
Procedure Groups with 3-6 students A handout for each student (see Chapter
V) 30-40 min Each student reads the description of the situation. The teacher
may ask a few comprehension questions to make sure everybody understood.
The groups try to find as many courses of action as possible. They should write
them down. Then they discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each
solution and decide on the best one. They write down their reasons. Each group
presents their solution. The other groups should challenge the arguments and
conclusions of the reporting group. 2.5.3 ONE DAY IN LONDON Aims Level
Groupings Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Pairs 15-20 min The
teacher describes the situation: - speaking - all elements “You have to plan how
to spend a day in London with your partner. Both of you arrive at Heathrow
airport at 9 a.m. and you have to be back at the airport at 9 p.m. There is a self
drive car which you may use. It has a full tank. You receive 25 £ each, but you
have no other money. Decide what you would like to do. You should plan the day
in such a way that you are happy with it.” The students work in pairs. The
partners find out from each other what they would like to do and what they
would not. They work out a timetable for the day. The students report back
their plans to the class. Similarities and differences are discussed. 76 2.5.4
TREASURE HUNT Aims Level Groupings Skills Language Intermediate - all - all
four skills elements Individuals, pairs, groups, class Time Procedure A few
minutes each lesson for a number of days All the tasks for this activity have to
be worked out in advance. The tasks should be tailored for individual students,
so that their strengths may be exploited. The basic principles of a treasure hunt
are the following: Each student has to follow instructions and fulfill a certain
task. If he does it properly he is rewarded with a piece of information, e.g. a
word or letter. All the pieces of information collected by the students have to be
combined to find the general solution, i.e. the treasure. It would be useful (if
possible) to enlist the help of other English speaking people so that the tasks
can include phoning and letter-writing. The prize for finding the solution can be
anything from a bag of sweets to a visit to an English movie. Possible tasks: 1.
There is a poem on page xx in your textbook. Learn it by heart and recite it in
the next lesson. You will then get an envelope from your teacher. (Envelope:
Your word is “you”) 2. (For two students) Here are the lines of a dialogue, all
mixed up. Put them in the correct order and write your own ending to it. Act it
out in front of the class in the next lesson. You will then get an envelope from
the teacher.(Word: surprise”) 3. Here is a text where some words are spelled
incorrectly. Check with your dictionary to find out the correct spelling. Write
down all the letters that were wrong. They make a word. (Word: “there”) 4.
Phone this number xxxxxxxxx and ask to speak to Mr. Z. Find out where he
spent his holiday last year, tell him about yours. If you don’t make any mistakes
he will tell you the next word.(Word: “is”) 5. Read this story and tell the class
what it is about in the next lesson. Your teacher will give you the next word.
(Word: “cupboard”) 6. Here are the rules for a new game. Together with
students C and D make the materials for the game, so that we can play it next
week. Your teacher will give you the next word. (Word: ”for”) 7. Go and explain
the new game to class X. Play it with them. You will then get your new word.
(Word: “a”) 8. Write a letter to Mrs. Y. Ask her for the recipe for trifle. If your
letter has no mistakes she will send you the recipe. The word you need is
underlined with red in the recipe. (Word: “in”) 9. Record the news on an
English-language radio program on Monday and write down the text. Bring the
recording and the text with you to the lesson on Thursday. Your teacher will tell
you the next word. (Word: “the”) 77 Solution: There is a surprise for you in the
cupboard. When the teacher has worked out the tasks, they can be given to the
students one by one. Progress in finding the solution can be marked on a
special notice on the wall in the classroom. 2.5.5 GROUP HOLIDAY Aims Level
Groupings Skills Language Intermediate - speaking - asking for and giving
reasons, agreeing, disagreeing, making suggestions Groups of five to seven
students Preparation Time Procedure A handout for each student 15-20 min
The class is divided into groups. Each student receives a handout containing
eight suggestions for a two week holiday. Each group has to find the holiday
that they would like to have together. A decision should be reached by
discussion and finding good arguments and not by a majority vote. Each group
presents the holiday they have chosen and outlines the reason for this choice.
The other groups may ask questions or comment. 2.5.6 EVERYDAY PROBLEMS
Aims Level Groupings Skills Language Intermediate - listening, speaking -
describing something, making suggestions, discussing alternatives Groups of
six to eight students or class Time Procedure 10-15 min Individual students
describe a problem they have, e.g. always forgetting their keys, not being able
to remember names, oversleeping, etc. The others try to suggest ways and
means of helping with the problem. 78 2.5.7 BAKER STREET Aims Level
Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Class
One - speaking - all elements copy of the handout (see Chapter V) cut into
strips (if there are cut more than 20 students two copies of the handout should
be out) 5-15 min The teacher draws the diagram on the board. The situation is
outlined to the students: There are five houses in Baker Street. One person
lives in each house. the aim is to find out each person’s name, whether he or
she is married or not, what pet he or she owns, which books he or she likes,
and what drinks he or she likes. The students get a piece of paper each with
some information on it. They have to share what they know to fill in the chart. It
should be left entirely to the students how they organize the collection of
information. The teacher’s sole function is to remind them to speak English. 3.
STORIES AND SCENES 3.1 MIMING Objects, actions or people have to be
mimed in the following activities. The mimes are done in pairs or groups.
Miming activities are valuable language-learning situations. Guessing
something is linked with the real desire to find out and thus is a true
communicative situation. Furthermore, miming exercises train the students’
skill of observation and improvisation.. Finally, miming exercises are useful
because they emphasise the importance of gesture and facial expression in
communication. In terms of language elements, they practice question forms
and expressing possibilities. 3.1.1 ADVERB CHARADE Aims Skills - speaking 79
Language - asking yes/no questions, adverbs Level Groupings Preparation Time
Procedure Beginners/intermediate Pairs, class About 50 small pieces of paper
10-15 min The pieces of paper are distributed, so that each student receives
two. On one piece of paper he writes a simple action, e.g. eating a banana,
knitting, reading a paper; on the other an adverb, e.g. angrily, badly,
cautiously,, etc. All the pieces of paper are put in a pile face down. Students
team up with a partner. The first pair comes to the front of the class. One draws
a piece of paper from the action pile, the other from the adverb pile. Both mime
their action in the manner described by the adverb. the rest of the class guess.
Variations It can also be played as a competitive team game 3.1.2 MIMING
PEOPLE AND OBJECTS Aims Level Groupings Skills Language Beginners -
speaking - making conjectures, asking questions Individuals, pairs, groups
Preparation Time Procedure Several piles of small pieces of paper with
descriptions of people (e.g. an old man, a fat bus conductor), names of objects,
photos or drawings of people or objects 10-15 min Instructions as to what the
students have to mime are given verbally or visually. The individual mimes can
be organized in one of the following ways: 1. Every student chooses a piece of
paper from a pile and mimes the person or the object. The others guess. 2. Two
or three students combine their miming tasks to mime a short scene together.
The others observe and make suggestions. 3. Each group of students is given
the same people and objects to mime. Performances and different realizations
are discussed. 4. Chain mime. One student starts by miming his object/person.
Another student joins him until up to ten students are involved in miming a
situation. 3.1.3 DAILY LIFE 80 Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time
Procedure Skills Language - speaking, writing - asking questions, stating one’s
opinions, making suggestions, agreeing/disagreeing Beginners/intermediate
Groups of three to five students Short dialogues on separate pieces of paper,
some objects as props 15-20 min Each group of students receives a different
dialogue and has five minutes in which to organize miming. They decide who
takes which role, and what props are needed. Each group performs their mime
in turn. After each performance the students in the audience suggest what the
mime was about. Variations Each group may speak only one sentence of the
dialogue during the mime. 3.1.4 HOTEL RECEPTIONIST Aims Level Groupings
Skills Language Intermediate - speaking, reading - all kinds of questions,
expressing understanding, asking for confirmation Class, groups of five to eight
students Preparation Time Procedure At least as many messages as there are
students, on small slips of paper 15-20 min The teacher explains the situation.
The setting is a hotel in an English-speaking country. A guest staying at the
hotel has a very bad cold and has lost his voice. He therefore has to
communicate with the hotel receptionist by miming. In the first two or three
rounds the teacher takes the part of the hotel receptionist. The guest is played
by one of the students. This student draws a slip of paper with a message on it
(e.g. It’s very cold in my room. I can’t turn the radiators on. Could you send
someone up to have a look?) and, playing the part of the guest, mimes his
request while the hotel receptionist guesses. The rest of the class helps the
receptionist to figure out the request. 81 Then the students are divided into
groups. The members of each group sit in a circle and take turns to play the
guest and the receptionist. Each group has a supply of messages to draw from.
Variations The setting is The Lost Property Office. Students have to claim
objects they have lost. The objects are written on small slips of paper. Possible
messages: “I have to catch an early train tomorrow. Could I be woken up at
5.30 a.m., please ?” “I am going out now. I am expecting a phone call from my
wife. Could you, please, tell her that I’ve lost my voice and have written a letter
to her?” “I have forgotten the number of my room.” “Where is the nearest post
office?” “Can you get me two opera tickets for tomorrow night? But only if
there are seats in the first fifteen rows.” “Can you change a £5 bill into 50p
pieces?” “I’d like to go on a sightseeing tour round the town tomorrow. When
do they leave? How long does it take and how much does it cost?” “Is there a
heated indoor swimming-pool in the town? How far is it?” “Somebody has put a
crocodile in my bath. Please, come quickly.” “There’s a funny noise coming
from the room next to mine. I’m afraid that somebody might be ill.” 3.1.5
MESSAGES Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language
Intermediate Pairs As - writing, speaking - expressing one’s opinion,
right/wrong many pieces of paper with messages as students 15-20 min Each
student takes a message which he is not allowed to show to anyone. Then they
find a partner. All the students stand around the walls of the classroom far from
their partner. Half of the class is miming at the same time, while their partners
write down what they think they see. Then they sit down and discuss with their
partner. The original messages are read out. Then the second students mime
their part and the discussion follows. Possible messages: 1. I’d like to go to the
cinema with you. Meet me at my house at 7 p.m. 2. Can I borrow your CD
player? Mine has broken down. 82 3. I am having a party on Saturday. Can you
come? 4. Could we do our homework together this afternoon? 5. I am going
shopping to get a new bicycle. Do you want to come? 6. Please, do some
shopping for me. Get four pounds of apples, two bottles of lemonade, and some
toilet paper. 7. I found a red purse on the floor. It has 20 $ in it. Is it yours? 8.
Go to the library and get a book on cats. 9. Your trousers have split. 10. There
is a big white stain on your pullover. It’s right under your left arm. 3.2 ROLE
PLAY AND SIMULATIONS It is not easy to distinguish clearly between role play
and simulation. Both are forms of games mirroring a slice of reality. As a rule
simulations are more highly structured and contain more diverse elements in
their content and procedure. “Simulations are simplified patterns of human
interactions or social processes where the players participate in roles.”
(Davison and Gordon 1978, p.55). Most simulations demand that participants
are supplied with background information and materials to work from both
before and during the simulation. Accomplishing the task set in a simulation
has sometimes got to be done within a time limit, e.g. in writing the front page
of a newspaper, just as in reality. In contrast to simulations, role plays often
consist of short scenes, which can be realistic - as in acting out a shopping
situation - or pure fantasy – as in pretending to interview a Martian on TV. Role
plays improve the students’ oral performance generally, and simulations quite
often train all four skills. The complexity of simulations, which run over several
stages, prevents the teacher from exactly determining beforehand which
structures, words and language skills will be needed by the players. Therefore
simulations mainly constitute practice sessions where the participants draw on
everything they have learned so far. 3.2.1 TELEPHONING Aims Level Skills
Language - speaking, writing - insisting, interrupting, directing the
conversation, hesitating Intermediate/advanced Groupings Preparation Time
Procedure Pairs Role cards (see Chapter V) 15-20 min The class is divided into
two teams (A and B) and each team into sub-groups of three to five students.
Each A-group students receive a copy of an A-role, B-group B-role (see Chapter
V). The students in both groups work out some phrases which they could use in
the telephone conversation indicated on the role-card. 83 One person from
group A and one from group B act out the telephone conversation in front of
the group. Up to four more pairs give their version as well. This procedure is
repeated with different role cards. 3.2.2 TV INTERVIEW Aims Level Skills
Language - speaking, writing - describing something, (present simple)
questions, introducing someone Intermediate/advanced Groupings Time
Procedure Groups of four to six students 20-30 min One of the groups has to
prepare the role of the interviewer and write down questions the interviewer
could ask the members of the “ideal family”. All the other groups represent an
“ideal family”; they should allocate the different roles within the group and talk
about the personalities, ways of behaviour and ideas of the people in their ideal
family. Each ideal family is interviewed by a different interviewer in turn in
front of the class. At the beginning of the role play each member of the family
introduces either himself or another family member. Since a lot of the students’
values and ideals regarding families will have become obvious, they should be
discussed afterwards. Other ideal groups can be interviewed, e.g. “ideal
holiday”, “ideal flat-sharing”. 3.2.3 CONTROVERSY IN THE SCHOOL Aims
Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language - all - all Intermediate/advanced
Groups/class four skills elements Handouts (See Chapter V) Time Procedure
20-45 min Each student receives a handout. The texts are read and language
difficulties are cleared up. Students are divided into groups. One group
presents arguments the parents might put forward, another group thinks of the
point of view of the students concerned. All in all there can be up to eight
different groups, dealing with the parents, teachers, principal, students of
different ages, local press and school administration (local education 84
authority). The groups arrange meetings, e.g. the parents want to talk to the
principal, the local press interviews the teachers and students, etc. The final
step can be a panel discussion with a representative of each group. Variations
Instead of arranging meetings, each group can produce a leaflet or poster
outlining their position. Other issues that can be dealt with: pollution control,
campaigning for a new playground, fighting against a new motorway, etc. 3.2.4
SWAP SHOP Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills
Language Intermediate Individuals Role cards 20-30 min - speaking - offering
something, expressing interest, describing adjectives, if-clauses Each student
receives a role card.(e.g. “You are a collector of model trains; you are
interested in steam engines” or “You are a fan of the Beatles and are
desperately looking for a copy of their white album in good condition, because
yours is badly scratched”) and two or three object cards (e.g. The Beatles White
album, sleeve is very torn, records in passable condition, model of the French
high speed train, Victorian doll-one arm missing real hair) The students walk
around and try to find others who are interested in one of the objects they have
to offer or who can offer them something. Variations Real objects can be
brought along and used for this activity. 3.2.5 MAKING A RADIO PROGRAM
Aims Level Skills Language - all four skills - all elements Intermediate/advanced
Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Class, groups, pairs Tape recorder,
microphone, CD player, sound effects, music, collection of magazines, articles
3-5 hours 85 Students may work individually, in groups or in pairs. The end
product should be a radio program 10 to 20 minutes long, consisting of short
interviews, or commentaries separated by advertising and music. Students
work on different parts of the program and a schedule has to be written up first
of all with the different tasks clearly specified. Example: Selecting and
recording the music Presenters of the program Sound effects First interview
Second interview Advertisements Commentary Short sketch - 2 students - 2
students - 2 students - 5 students - 4 students - 6 students - 3 students - 3
students More items for the program can be introduced with larger classes.
The students preparing the interviews and the commentary look through
newspaper articles to find suitable topics. When they have found a story, they
decide who to interview and prepare the questions with the help of the teacher.
The students working out the advertisements look through the magazines to
find ideas they want to adapt. The teacher moves from group to group to help
and correct written material. Before the final recording each group presents its
part of the program. Last minute alterations are made. The presenters work on
their introductory remarks to each part of the program. The sequence of the
individual interviews is scheduled. Final recording. 3.3 STORIES The aim of the
activities from this section is to make the students produce longer connected
texts. For this they will need imagination as well as some skill in the foreign
language. Stimuli are given in the form of individual words or pictures,
depending on the activity. Story-telling activates more than a limited number of
patterns and structures and these activities are best used as general revision.
3.3.1 CHAIN STORY 86 Aims Level Groupings Preparation Time Procedure
Skills Language - speaking - simple past Beginners/intermediate Class Small
them, slips of paper with one noun/verb/adjective on each of as many pieces of
paper as there are students. 10-20 min Each student receives a word slip. The
teacher starts the story by giving the first sentence: e.g. “It was a stormy night
in November.” A student continues the story. He may say up to three sentences
and must include the word on his slip of paper. The next student goes on.
Variation Each student is also given a number. The numbers determine the
sequence in which the students have to contribute to the story. 3.3.2
NEWSPAPER REPORT Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language
Intermediate Groups A - writing - reporting events, past tenses passive large
number of photos taken from magazines and newspapers Time Procedure 20-30
min Each group is given five pictures of which they have to use three. Their aim
is to write a newspaper report linking these three pictures. When each group
has decided which pictures to use they write their report. The reports are read
out and the pictures are shown to the class. Variations Each group chooses
three pictures which another group has to describe. All the pictures are
displayed on the wall. When the reports are read, the others have to guess
which pictures fit the reports. 3.3.3 PICTURE STORIES 87 Aims Level
Groupings Preparation Time Procedure Skills Language Intermediate Pairs or
individuals - writing - describing something, dialogue Pictures from magazines
and cartoon strips with the words in the speech bubbles blanked out 15-20 min
The students have to write texts for the pictures or fill in the speech bubbles.
Variations 1. If more than one student receives the same pictures, their results
can be compared. 2. One pair of students fills in the first bubble, then hands it
over to the next pair and so on. The first pair, in the meantime, fills in the first
bubble on another strip and then passes it on in the same way. 3.3.4 LETTER
AND TELEGRAMS Aims Level Groupings Preparation Skills Language
Advanced Individuals A - writing, reading comprehension - nouns, verb forms
copy of the letter to each student (see chapter V) Time Procedure 10-20 min
Each student receives a copy of a letter and is asked to write two telegrams for
it, one of 24 words, the other of 12 words. The telegrams are read out and
compared. Variations Students receive different letters. 3.3.5 KEEP TALKING
Aims Level Skills Language - speaking - all Intermediate/advanced Groupings
Preparation Individuals Slips elements of paper with a sentence and a topic
Time Procedure 5-15 min 88 A student chooses a slip of paper and has to talk
for one minute about the topic, beginning with the sentence on the paper.
Examples: Smoking Homesickness Pets Parents Clothes Chewing gum
Variations If a cigarette costs 1$ a lot of people… When I was a little boy/girl,…
I used to have/I would like to have… There are no certificates for good parents.
I like… Animals don’t chew chewing gum. 1. It can also be played as a team
contest. 2. The topic and sentence cards can be prepared by the students. 3.
This activity can be used
In order to get students’ attention and facilitate learning, teachers should consider integrating a
variety of activities into the English class, especially when teaching vocabulary because it brings
about interaction and variety which can help to enliven the classroom atmosphere and encourage
deeper learning for every student.
Hadfield (1998: 4) defines it as “an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun” but there
are several other factors that should be taken into account. Competences acquired when playing
didactic games, e.g. cooperation, critical thinking or readiness to take risks, are also important aspects
when talking about interactive games and activities. Toth (1995: 8) highlights the importance of
students being acquainted with the goal of the game from the very beginning. In addition, she states
that the students should also be provided with the instructions before beginning the game to avoid
problems afterwards. She suggests the teacher asking a few students to come to the front of the class
to give a demonstration first before handing out the material to the remainder of the students. They
may not listen to the instructions and become distracted if they are given the material first.
Different writers have different classification of games.
Hadfield (1999:102 -104) provides a classification specifically for vocabulary games
depending on their aim: linguistic games and communicative games. She states that the former’s aim
is to recall the correct word, i.e. linguistic accuracy, whereas the latter’s aim is not accuracy, but to
conduct a task which requires the use of the language to be completed. She classifies games into:
sorting, ordering, or arranging games, information gap games, guessing games, search games,
matching games, labelling games, exchanging games, board games and role-play games.
Lee’s classification (2000: 65) includes structure games (focused on syntax and technical
aspects of language), vocabulary games (focused on developing learners’ L2 lexicon), spelling,
pronunciation or number games, listen-and-go games, games and writing, miming and role-play, as
well as discussion games.
Shifting the focus on the structure of games it is possible to distinguish various types
depending on the tools and physical materials used in order to play it. Such a classification is put
forward by Lewis and Bedson (1999:17), who distinguished the following games: movement, card
games, board games, dice, drawing, guessing, role-play, singing and chanting games, team games and
word games.
On studying these classifications, it can be deduced that each author dealing with vocabulary
games group games differently based on their particular way of making connections.
Each kind of game mentioned above focuses on a language component or a skill, so when
choosing games, one of the factors that teachers have to consider is the aim of the lesson. These
games can be played in pairs, groups, or with the whole class and they can be used at any stages of a
class (Harmer, 1991:101). Interactive games and activities have some characteristics that are
advantageous when teaching vocabulary.
Research indicates that classroom games are effective strategies that facilitate learning.
McCallum (1980:78) points out that games can function as reinforcement, review, and enrichment.
Games are a good way to increase exposure to vocabulary because while playing, students need to use
the language items and repeat patterns and that will contribute to the mental processes of retention and
remembering, developing and improving all four skills and enhancing students’ vocabulary
acquisition. Most vocabulary games provide students with intensive and meaningful practice of
language because they make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning the correct
forms (Lee, 1995: 78). Hadfield (1984: 127) shares the same view that games can provide an
opportunity for real communication and bridge the game between the classroom and the real world.
Another important advantage of interactive activities is that they engage all students in the learning
process and encourage cooperation, team spirit, competition, and turn taking. These activities provide
an opportunity for students to collaborate and cooperate with each other, while working towards a
common goal, even though they may not realize that they are actually learning. When students play
games in pairs or groups, they have the opportunity to recognize and appreciate the contributions of
others and use team-building skills. When playing promoting student-centred activities students are
given an active role and they can develop their skills of disagreeing in a polite way, asking for help,
and working with others.
As games provide another encounter with the target words, they have the advantage of being
fun, competitive, and consequently, memorable. According to Uberman (1998:18), vocabulary games
provide a fun and enjoyable learning environment and students remember things faster and better
Because they are amusing and interesting games can maintain students’ motivation in vocabulary
learning and make them interested to get involved and to participate actively in the learning activities.
Furthermore, games encompass a number of intelligences such as visual intelligence when
games involve drawing, interpersonal intelligence when they include playing with others, and
kinesthetic intelligence when they provide hands-on elements like cards.
On the other hand, Toth puts forward that games are sometimes perceived as “relaxation
activities in which the children are not really ‘studying’ English”. They are not taken seriously and
they are “often severely marginalised, and tend to be used for some ephemeral pedagogic purpose –
not as a means of learning” (Cook, 2000: 183).
Two other worrying aspects are noise and space. Firstly, playing games which encourage
speaking inevitably brings noise to the classroom and secondly, some classes’ present space
constraints and some are difficult to reorganise to play games.
Another aspect that concerns is time because games can be time consuming. For teachers
faced with multiple demands and a fast-paced curriculum, it can be hard to find time for play in the
classroom—much less play that is meaningful and allows students to deepen their knowledge.
Because the benefits of mentioned above outweigh the worrying aspects, we can conclude that
interactive games and activities are an effective tool to teach vocabulary because students participate
and pay more attention when they enjoy themselves and the classroom and feel and do better during
and after the game. Such play not only keeps students interested but also helps make their
understanding of the new words more precise. Through back-and-forth, interactive play, students can
also clarify misunderstandings without feeling embarrassed or singled out. Therefore, Lee (1995:78)
suggests that games should not be regarded as “activities filling in odd moments when the teacher and
his/her class have nothing better to do”. They ought to be at the heart of teaching a language in
general and vocabulary in specific (Uberman, 1998: 20).

2.2.2. Examples of interactive activities

 In my teaching environment, I integrate various approaches: word lists, exercises focusing on
listening, speaking, reading, and writing, alongside straightforward vocabulary instruction. These
techniques empower my students to grasp lexical concepts through consistent practice and a mix of
experiences. Furthermore, I incorporate engaging methods for learning vocabulary, which can
alleviate the dullness often associated with conventional vocabulary teaching practices. These include
activities that enhance vocabulary knowledge, strategies for introducing vocabulary, techniques for
students to revisit previously learned words, and methods to enrich their vocabulary through the use
of dictionaries, collaborative pair work, and group projects.
A diverse range of activities guarantees that vocabulary lessons remain dynamic and
interesting, helping both the students and the instructor stave off fatigue or burnout related to
vocabulary exercises.
In the following section, I delve into successful strategies and practices for boosting
vocabulary learning, as well as some enjoyable approaches to assist students in acquiring new words.

Semantic maps (https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/word_maps)

In this exercise, the educator selects a specific term and displays it prominently for the
students on a whiteboard or similar surface. The learners observe the term and generate associated
words that spring to their minds, thus triggering their existing knowledge. A compilation of all the
associated terms is then formed, followed by the organization of these words into various categories.
This process can take place either as an entire class activity or within smaller groups. The students
then design a “map” utilizing a graphic organizer and engage in a discussion about it. They may
propose additional or alternate categories. As the students engage with the reading material, they have
the opportunity to enrich the map with more related words.
The concept cube (https://www.teachhub.com ideas-instructing-vocabulary)

Students get a six-square template that can be constructed into a three-dimensional cube with
folding and taping. Prior to folding, students must write legibly in each square according to the
instructions provided below.
Each individual is assigned one difficult vocabulary term and instructed to:
- inscribe the given vocabulary term in one square.
- note a synonym (word or phrase) in a different square.
- indicate an antonym (word or phrase) in another square.
- list a category or categories to which it might belong.
- describe the key aspects of the concept of this term.
After completing this, they fold and tape the cube. The subsequent step involves rolling the cube and
observing what appears on the "top"; each student is required to explain how that word or phrase
relates to the original term.

Hot seat (Hot potatoes) (https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/hot-seat-0)

This dynamic vocabulary review activity is engaging and can be tailored to suit various class
sizes. If there are numerous teams, some may need to wait their turn. Alternatively, if
the teams are larger, you might limit the number of participants who describe the words.
To start, divide the class into several teams, with two being ideal, though you can use any
number for larger groups. Arrange the students so they face the board. Next, position empty chairs at
the front of the room, one for each team, oriented towards the team members. These chairs will serve
as the "hot seats." Have one student from each team come forward and sit in the chair, facing
their teammates while their back is turned to the board. The teacher then writes a word on the
board, which the seated student cannot see. The objective of the activity is for the other team
members to describe the given word using synonyms, antonyms, definitions, and so on,
while their teammate in the hot seat listens and attempts to guess the word. The first student in the hot
seat to correctly identify the word earns a point for their team. Afterward, switch out the
students, allowing a new member from each team to take their turn in the hot seat. Write the next
word and continue the game.

Guess the word (https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/word-guessing-games )

This activity is particularly effective for working with abstract concepts.
Select five terms connected to recent discussions and create clues designed to assist students in
identifying the words. This activity can involve the entire class or be played in groups of
two or three teams. You can focus on one term for each of five sessions, or you can incorporate all the
terms into a single, extended session.
For example, clues for the word "freedom" might include:
- I am a noun that holds significant value.
- I start with the letter 'f.'
- Those incarcerated have lost me and yearn to regain me.
- Individuals often seek me when dictators infringe upon their rights.
- I have a connection to the right to express oneself.
 Odd one out (https://www.englishhints.com/odd-one-out.html)

Select four terms connected to the theme being discussed, ensuring that one of these terms is
distinct or does not fit. This exercise serves effectively as an introductory activity for a subject. It not
only aids in imparting new vocabulary but also acts as a useful technique for revisiting previously
learned words that will be applicable in the 'new' topic. Frequently,
I observe that various students identify a different 'odd one out' than what I initially thought it to be.
If that occurs, as long as they can substantiate their selection in the target language, they ought to
receive recognition for it.

Scrambled letters (http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Koprowski-RecyclingVocabulary.html)

The teacher writes down a set of eight words with their letters mixed up (for instance, eicscen
representing science) on the board. When the instructor commands 'go', students, either alone or in
pairs, attempt to decipher the words as swiftly as possible. The first participant or team to succeed
claims victory. The teacher can then briefly review each group of letters displayed, prompting
discussion about the respective word or idea. It’s crucial to ensure the words are not overly
challenging. Naturally, this game can be adapted in multiple ways. Phrases consisting of more than
two words, idiomatic expressions, or even sayings can also be utilized (for example, "you’re having
when time flies fun" for "time flies when you’re having fun").

Linear array (http://www.giftedguru.com/21_ideas_for_teaching_vocabulary)

In this approach, learners utilize a graphic organizer consisting of a rectangle, three ovals, and
a final rectangle arranged sequentially. The term under consideration is placed in the rectangle on
the extreme left. The rectangle on the extreme right is occupied by a word that conveys the
opposite meaning. The three ovals in the center are populated with words that transition from the left
to the right, progressively diverging until they reach the contrasting term. For instance: microscopic,
tiny, small, bigger, large.

Relay for words (http://www.giftedguru.com/21_ideas_for_teaching_vocabulary)

Create a set of cards that contains words (duplicate this set a few times) and another set that
includes definitions, contexts, or sentences for using those words (just one set for this). Scatter the
words in a random pile on the floor and keep the definitions, contexts, and sentences mixed up with
you. Organize the students into groups of five. Announce the definition, context, or sentence and
allow the students time to consider which word may correspond. Once they’ve had a chance to
discuss, say “Word!” A representative from each team then rushes to the center to locate the
corresponding word from the pile. I prefer having several sets of words available so that multiple
teams can participate. Verify their answers, then have a quick discussion before proceeding to the next
round.

Quick revision games (https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/quickrevisiongames)

Divide the class in two teams. Give each team a set of slips with five (or three or two,
depending on their level) things they have to name.
Examples:
- name five things that move
- name five drinks
- name five things you would be doing if you weren't here
- name five ways to get rich
- name five animals
A member of the team reads the category of things they have to name and the whole team shouts the
words. While team A is doing this, team B have to remain in silence. Then it's team B's turn. Time
each team. The faster team is the winner.

Last one standing (https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/vocabulary-games)

This activity serves as an excellent method for review and helps engage students with the lesson's
theme. It can also be utilized to draw out prior knowledge that students possess about a particular
subject.
The instructor selects a specific category, such as animals, colors, school supplies, or kitchen
tools. Students form a circle while standing and must each provide a word that fits within that selected
category. If a student fails to come up with a word, they must stand up. The teacher then picks a
different category, and the next student begins anew. In the subsequent round, the student who is
standing will have a new opportunity. If they can produce a word related to the newly chosen
category, they are permitted to sit down. The last individual remaining standing is declared the
champion.

Alphabet game (http://iteslj.org/Techniques/KoprowskiRecyclingVocabulary)

 Split the class into three or four groups and choose a secretary for each one. On one side of the
board, list six categories that connect to the ongoing topic or curriculum of your class (such as
nations, athletics, occupations, films, furniture, action words, or circular objects). To initiate the game,
the instructor randomly picks a letter from the alphabet and writes it on the board. Each group must
then collaborate to swiftly come up with a word for each of the six categories that begins with the
selected letter. The first group to finish all six categories yells "stop!" At this point, the class ceases
writing, and a representative from the winning team approaches the board to fill in the categories. The
teacher then reviews each word with the entire class and asks what other groups wrote for each
category. If the fastest team has correctly filled in every category, they receive one point for their
group. The instructor will then select another letter, and another round will commence. The first team
to reach a predetermined point total is declared the winner.

Guess what I'm thinking (https://www.englishhints.com/question-game.html)

Students alternate in describing an item, such as a location: “I’m imagining a spot that is
so vast that it requires hours for guests to explore everything. It features magnificent pieces of art. The
structure is awe-inspiring, quite ancient, yet has a contemporary glass pyramid at its
entrance.” Participants can opt to be as straightforward or as mysterious as they wish. Even young
children can engage in this with basic descriptions: “It’s a creature. It has an extremely lengthy neck
and large brown spots.” Alternatively, they might just list a collection of terms: “Africa, monochrome,
stripes.”

The revision box (https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/revision-box)

This exercise can be implemented for all proficiency levels when instructing English as a
second language. I primarily apply it with intermediate learners, and they find it engaging. The
instructor utilizes a vocabulary container that should predominantly consist of words written on slips
of paper (such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.), all of which are contributed by the students in
earlier classes. It is essential to have a significant number of words for this exercise. The box
containing all the vocabulary is passed around the classroom. Each student has the opportunity to
select a word from which they will need to form a brief and grammatically sound sentence. Each
constructed sentence is recorded on the board exactly as articulated by the speaker. After 12 to 20
sentences have been created, the group examines them to determine their grammatical accuracy,
focusing mainly on the word drawn from the vocabulary box. Corrections can then be made, and
students, depending on the time available, may be encouraged to generate the correct sentences using
the same vocabulary word. This approach effectively facilitates student dialogue while also helping
them recognize their errors.

Bingo (https://www.bookwidgets.com/blog/2014/11/fun-classroom-activity-bingo)
Bingo is a highly enjoyable activity to engage in with a group, is simple to play, and can assist
in practicing everything from vocabulary in different languages to mathematical concepts and
historical information. Anyone can participate in the game collectively, regardless of their skill level.
Additionally, the fantastic aspect is that either educators or students are capable of designing their
own personalized Bingo cards.
The fundamental rules of Bingo are straightforward: each participant receives a sizable card
filled with squares that include words, phrases, or images. Everyone is given the same terms, but they
appear in varying sequences. When the teacher announces a word, each student looks for the
corresponding square on their card and marks it. The first person to highlight five words in a row
shouts 'Bingo' and claims victory. Numerous slight modifications to the game are available to enhance
accessibility for learners. We can substitute words on the card with images, arrange for students to
play in pairs or teams to assist one another in locating the words swiftly, or provide clues that guide
them to the contents of the squares without stating the words or pictures directly. After confirming the
answers of the declared winner, the teacher should reward them with a small prize: it could be a treat,
a "No Homework" voucher, or, if tangible prizes are not available, the teacher can acknowledge the
winner by allowing them to step in front of the class and take on the role of the caller for the
subsequent round.
Kahoot! (https://kahoot.com)

Kahoot serves as a gamified learning platform utilized as an educational tool in various

academic settings. It acts as an engaging and student-centric method for teaching and learning by
enabling the creation of educational games and facilitating comprehension through participation. It's
an excellent resource for revising vocabulary and testing learners' language abilities in real-time
interactive formats.
Kahoot! focuses on collaborative learning, bringing students together around a shared display,
which could be an interactive whiteboard, a projector, or a computer screen. The platform's learning
games, referred to as "Kahoots," consist of multiple-choice quizzes that support user-generated
content and can be accessed through smartphones or tablets. The design of the game encourages
participants to frequently glance away from their devices. Players can choose between Classic mode
(Individual competition, 1:1 devices) or Team mode (Team competition, shared devices). The
mechanics are straightforward; each individual or group joins using a unique game PIN visible on the
shared screen and utilizes their device to respond to questions formulated by a teacher or another
creator. These questions can be adjusted to grant points, which then reflect on the leaderboard after
each question is answered.
Kahoot serves as a tool for evaluating students' understanding, providing formative
assessments, or offering a break from conventional classroom routines. I prefer utilizing Kahoot
quizzes for formative evaluation, allowing students to enjoy engaging in the quiz while also absorbing
new knowledge. Simultaneously, I can gather essential insights into their academic progress. A
standout aspect of Kahoot is its ability to compile the information into a downloadable spreadsheet,
which lets me identify any specific areas where students might be facing challenges.
Kahoot is primarily focused on fostering a supportive educational atmosphere by merging
collaboration, emotional engagement, and playfulness. The role of technology is simply to enhance
the collaborative learning experience. The most impactful way to implement Kahoot in the classroom
is to challenge students to create their own games and then oversee the gaming process, playing
alongside their peers. This approach promotes extensive research, enhances critical thinking, sparks
creativity, and develops skills in question formulation, facilitation, and presentation.

Chapter ...: Role play: a nutshell of interactive

activities and games

Chapter 3. Experimental Research: Interactive Strategies used Developing English

Vocabulary Acquisition

3.1. Pre-experimental phase

The role of vocabulary is crucial in the education of the English language, as a limited
vocabulary inhibits students from comprehending others or expressing their own thoughts. As noted
by Nagy & Anderson (1984) and Singson, Mahony & Mann (2000), there exists a significant
correlation between a person's vocabulary size and their overall language ability. Vocabulary is
fundamental to how effectively learners can listen, speak, read, and write. In the absence of a broad
vocabulary and effective strategies for learning new words, students frequently fall short of their
potential and may feel disheartened from taking advantage of language learning situations around
them, such as tuning into the radio, conversing with native speakers, practicing the language in
various settings, engaging with reading materials, or watching television shows.
Educators and students alike continually face the hurdle of vocabulary instruction, primarily
because there has historically been limited emphasis on teaching vocabulary within the EFL
classroom. However, with vocabulary instruction gaining more recognition beyond grammar teaching,
this shift has prompted research to assess the efficacy of various techniques for learning and
remembering vocabulary, including the use of interactive activities.
Contemporary teaching approaches include a diverse array of techniques that should share
certain characteristics: engagement of learners and relevance to everyday experiences. For these
methods to be productive, they need to be implemented in a logical sequence, ensuring a well-rounded
focus on various components of the language. The instructor's responsibility is to select appropriate
methods and activities to effectively teach English vocabulary.
When employing interactive teaching techniques, the instructor is present in the classroom to
motivate and assist students as they engage, experiment, and make the learning process enjoyable. I
have selected this subject because I aim to enhance my students’ learning skills, to engage them in the
educational process, to bolster their confidence in speaking English, to sustain their interest and
enthusiasm, and ultimately, to foster effective and enjoyable strategies for acquiring English
vocabulary.
In order to develop my research I have consulted teaching documents, works and books related
to this theme such as: the curriculum, training courses for teachers, articles and studies, dictionaries,
exercise-books and the course books, which are mentioned in Bibliography.

3.1.1. Problem identification

Over the years that I have taught English, I have observed that the majority of my pupils
possess a passive familiarity with a fairly extensive vocabulary. This indicates that they can identify
words and comprehend their meanings, employing them across different contexts, exercises, or even
crafting their own sentences with some assistance. However, their ability to actively use this
vocabulary is frequently restricted, and this aspect requires significant focus. At this point, my
attention extends beyond just the comprehension of word meanings; I also aim for them to apply these
words correctly and build the confidence to engage and converse effortlessly in the target language.
Generally, my students can communicate effectively, having mastered essential grammatical
structures of the language. Nonetheless, they must enhance their vocabulary to articulate their
thoughts with greater clarity and suitability in a variety of circumstances.
As a result, vocabulary remains a fundamental element of my lessons. I often depend on
engaging excerpts from literature found in the textbook, which seems to captivate the interest of my
students. In my weekly two-hour sessions, I strive to involve all pupils, irrespective of their individual
strengths, prioritizing their educational requirements and exploring methods to address these needs. I
may assign additional exercises for them to complete independently as part of a support strategy,
revisit previously taught words, or occasionally encourage their classmates to elaborate on the
meanings or translate terms as necessary.

I employ various forms of assessment, such as project-based activities or individualized language

portfolios that encompass writing assignments, both formal and informal correspondence, evaluations,
artistic creations, songs, and narratives. However, most learners appear disinterested in acquiring new
vocabulary, resulting in their performance on assessments generally being unsatisfactory.
Additionally, by the conclusion of their secondary education, many students still exhibit limited
proficiency in English, which can be attributed to the minimal exposure they receive to the language.
Thus, a strategic shift is essential for achieving a genuinely effective classroom environment,
prompting me to explore different evaluation techniques from the outset.
Consequently, I believed that integrating interactive approaches into the process of learning
English vocabulary might engage students more effectively and create a beneficial influence on their
attitudes, leading to improvements in both their mindset and academic performance.The underlying
assumption was that students could be taught to engage with each other with the task in a way that
would foster the creativity and exploitation of vocabulary learning opportunities.

3.1.2. Aim and objectives

The purpose of this research was to examine how interactive approaches contribute to
vocabulary development within English language classes and to evaluate the advancements students
made after engaging in interactive tasks throughout an entire academic year. The subsequent sections
will detail the specific instructional techniques implemented and will offer an insightful overview of
the interactive exercises performed in the classroom, along with the outcomes that were measured at
designated intervals. This study did not disrupt the achievement of the educational goals outlined in
the curriculum; on the contrary, it served as an enhancement in reaching those primary objectives.
Concerning the interactive techniques employed during this specific timeframe, the goals of
the research were:
- to enhance students’ vocabulary skills;
- to document and compare the outcomes experienced by the learners at both the start and conclusion
of the academic year;
- to determine effective vocabulary teaching strategies that encourage student creativity and critical
thinking;
- to increase participation and foster motivation for learning;
- to enhance collaborative dynamics through the exploration of alternative cooperative learning
strategies;
- to advance communication, speaking, and writing abilities.

3.1.3. Methods and techniques of investigation

For this stage of this paper I devised an experiment to record and assess the progress of the 5th
grade students, before and after using interactive activities, designing my vocabulary teaching classes.
The experiment took place during the school year 2018-2019 school year at Rediu Secondary School,
Galați county. The class consists of 22 pupils (9 girls and 13 boys). There is a boy with special
educational needs (learning disabilities) and three children (two boys and one girl) from broken or
dysfunctional families. Their achievements are very low.
Most of them come from common families and the main job of the parents is agriculture.
These children cannot be helped in learning English by their parents, but only by their elder brothers
and their teacher. About 50% of pupils have good and very good achievements at school, and the rate
of school abandonment is zero. There wasn’t noted any inadequate school behaviour.
After choosing the experimental class, I decided to use the games described in the previous chapter to
check if interactive strategies were more efficient than traditional methods when it comes to
developing vocabulary acquisition in the English language class.
As a teacher, it was of course imperative that I took into consideration a few obvious variables, as the
students’ interest, their motivation, the different learning styles or different types of intelligence.
Consequently, one of my main teaching concerns related to the methods or procedures which
could be employed in order to enhance my students’ vocabulary acquisition for longer periods of time,
to encourage their initiative to speak the English language and help them develop their fluency or
improve their accuracy when writing compositions or sitting tests.
The English textbook for fifth graders published by Macmillan Educational and Litera
Publishing House includes a limited selection of vocabulary games, predominantly focusing on
correlating words with their meanings, synonyms, or antonyms. As a result, I typically merge
conventional exercises with engaging, team-oriented tasks for assessments, attentively monitoring my
students’ involvement during lessons. I incorporate games into my teaching, aiming to present new
vocabulary or utilize them as a method for review and solidifying learning by the lesson's conclusion.
While these games can occasionally take up a lot of time and create unavoidable noise and
activity, they are enjoyable, stimulating, encouraging, and ensure the participation of all students.
Nevertheless, it is essential to instill values like fair play and respect in teenagers daily, whether
through language games or in their routine interactions. Furthermore, it is crucial to plan games
meticulously in advance to reduce any negative outcomes. Establishing a clear set of rules is also
necessary to ensure that students approach the activity earnestly and can attain genuine advancement.
When implementing such activities, I chose a few games which I found suitable for classroom
use and I had hoped that if adapted to the vocabulary under focus, they would improve my students’
vocabulary acquisition as well as boost willing participation in class.

3.2. Experimental phase

3.3. 3.2.1. Establishing students’ initial level of knowing English

The fifth grade served as the experimental group where, during the second half of the academic year,
innovative interactive techniques were implemented as the independent variable. The research
included an initial assessment at the conclusion of the first semester, following the application of
traditional teaching methods, and these results were compared to the students' final grades at the end
of the second semester after the incorporation of interactive techniques. The initial phase of this
experiment focused on collecting information regarding the students’ current understanding of English
vocabulary, which led me to create a pre-test at the beginning of the study. The data gathered from this
phase aided in formulating my teaching strategy and established a baseline against which the students’
future development could be evaluated.
....vocabulary through games and interactive activities
Establishing vocabularythrough interactive activities and games?
Enriching vocabulary through interactive activities and games?

Larsen-Freeman, Diane, Techniques and principles in language teaching, Oxford univeristy press,
2000, p. 128.
B
Making communicative language teaching happen
byLee, James F

BYRNE, DONN, 1929, LONGMAN,

jeremy Harmer's 50 Communicative Activities (Cambridge Handbooks for
Language Teachers) ,Cambridge University Press and Assessment; New edition (May 26, 2022)