ELCTRICAL SYSTEMS

1. Explain the operation of various electrical wiring circuits

2. Describe construction and operations of electrical accessory components

Electrical circuits

 Lighting
 Charging
 Starting
 Gauges
 Ignition

Construction and operation of

 Horn
 Gauges
 Flushers units
 Wiper motors

Main electrical circuits

The battery, which is the electrical energy source when the engine is not running, is connecte
d to a number of separate circuits.
Although there are many electrical circuits used on a motor vehicle, these can be categorized
into six main electrical circuits:
Charging circuit
This supplies the electrical energy for charging and maintaining the battery when the engine i
s running.
Starting circuit
This enables the engine to be cranked over (rotated) at a speed sufficient for it to ‘start’ and k
eep running.
Ignition circuit (earlier vehicles)
This provides a high voltage to the spark plug to ignite the air/fuel mixture in the engine cylin
ders (may be integrated into the engine management system).
Fuel injection circuit (earlier vehicles)
This provides the correct volume of fuel necessary to enable the engine to operate with the co
rrect air/fuel
mixture (may be integrated into the engine management system).
Engine management circuit (later vehicles)
This controls the ignition and fuel systems, also the emission systems.
Lighting circuit
This provides the necessary exterior/interior illumination and warning systems.
Auxiliary circuit
This includes various accessories such as windscreen wipers and washers, horn, in-car enterta
inment, etc.
Additional functions include computer-controlled systems such as ABS, climate control, elect
ronically
controlled transmission, etc.

THE CHARGING SYSTEM

7.5.1 Function of a generator
 When the engine is running, the charging system provides the electrical energy for the
operation of the vehicle’s electrical components.
 The charging system must also maintain the battery in a fully-charged state.
 To fulfil these duties, the generator of the charging system must convert mechanical e
nergy into electrical energy.
There are two types of generator that can be fitted to a vehicle:
Dynamo – commonly used in the past but not used on modern motor vehicles
Alternator – fitted now to most vehicles.
7.5.2 Principle of the generator
 The origin of the generator goes back many years.
 In 1831 Michael Faraday performed an experiment that showed that an electric curren
t was generated when a magnet was moved in a coil of wire (Figure 7.23).
 He demonstrated that during the inward movement of the magnet, the needle on an a
mmeter (measuring amperes) moved; this showed that an electric current was flowing
in the coil circuit.
 Withdrawal of the magnet caused the needle to move in the other direction.
 This indicated that when the magnet moved in the opposite direction, the current also
flowed in the opposite direction.
 At times when there was no relative movement between the magnet and coil, electrica
l energy was not generated in the coil circuit.
The generation of electrical energy is dependent on three things:
1 The strength of the magnetic field.
2 The length of the conductor exposed to the magnetic field, i.e. the length of wire that forms
the coil.
3 The speed at which the magnetic field is cut, i.e. how quickly the magnet passes through the
coil of wire.

Generator:
The basic principle at work here is that electricity produces magnetism. Conversely,
magnetism produces electricity. If a current-carrying coil of wire is placed around a bar of
steel, the bar will become magnetized. The more turns of wire and the stronger the current,
the more powerful the magnet. By placing a soft iron core within the coil, the magnetic force
lines are concentrated and strengthened. As there is less electrical resistance in the iron than
in the surrounding air, the force lines will follow the core.

The various parts of a generator are shown in Fig. 19.3. The two pole shoes of a generator are
constructed in this way. Rather than use magnets - which are heavy and expensive - many
turns of wire are wound around the pole shoes. When a current passes through these windings
the pole shoes become electromagnets, called FIELD COILS. These two field coils are
connected in series (current passes through one and then through the other) and wound so that
one becomes the North Pole and the other the south pole of the magnetic field.

Inside the generator is a spinning central shaft which is supported in bearings at each end.
Loops of wire (armature windings) are wound on a special laminated holder called the
ARMATURE. The armature is turned by placing a pulley on one end of the shaft and driving
it with a V-belt from the engine's crankshaft, as seen in the figure. Attached to the armature
are electrical contact segments, called the COMMUTATOR. These segments are electrically
insulated from the armature - and each other - but each is soldered to one of the armature
windings. It is the commutator which distributes electricity to the armature in an on-off
manner, creating a magnetic field around the armature. Riding over the spinning commutator
segments are carbon "brushes". These brushes are held in spring-loaded brackets and that
pressure holds them against the commutator. It is the brushes which wear out over time and
require replacement.

Generator Working:

When the generator armature first begins to spin, there is a weak residual magnetic field in
the iron pole shoes. As the armature spins, it begins to build voltage. Some of this voltage is
impressed on the field windings through the generator regulator called voltage regulator. This
impressed voltage builds up a stronger winding current, increasing the strength of the
magnetic field. The increased field produces more voltage in the armature. This, in turn,
builds more current in the field windings, with a resultant higher armature voltage. This
voltage could, of course, continue to increase indefinitely, but it is limited (by regulation) to a
pre-set peak. At this point all this sounds like perpetual motion, doesn't it? Remember,
though, that the energy driving all this is the engine's crankshaft!

Alternator

 An alternator-type generator uses the principle of electromagnetic induction establishe

d in Faraday’s experiment.
 A magnet is rotated inside a coil of wire.
 In this coil an electromotive force is generated which causes an electric current to be f
orced around the circuit (refer to section 7.2.2).

 The function of each part of an alternator can be appreciated from the following
sections.

Generation of an alternating current

 Figure 7.24a shows a shaft-driven permanent magnet positioned in a soft iron C-
shaped stationary member (stator).
 This stator provides an easy path for the magnetic flux between the N and S poles of
the magnet.

 Figures. 7.24 b–d indicates how the magnetic lines of force (flux) vary in density and
direction as the magnet is rotated.
 In Figure 7.25 a voltmeter is placed across a coil of wire wound around the stator.
 Rotation of the magnet generates an electromotive force, which varies, as shown by
the graph, with magnet position.
 The polarity of the magnetic flux in the stator changes as the magnet is rotated, so an
alternating current (AC) is produced.
 The amount of current depends on the three factors defined by Faraday: strength of
magnetic field, length of conductor and speed at which magnetic field is cut.
 Since the only variable is the speed, the faster the magnet is rotated, the higher will be
the output.
 Space and weight are very important, so the alternator must be designed to give the
highest possible output.
 One step towards improved efficiency is to use a multipole magnet arranged in the
manner shown in Figure 7.26.
 In this case the magnet is placed coaxially with the shaft and, by means of soft iron
‘fingers’, two extra poles are formed on the rotating member (rotor).
 This arrangement doubles the output and makes the unit more efficient.
 As before, the output increases as the speed rises up to a point where the rapid
changes in current flow prevent any further increase in output.
 This feature is advantageous because in this way the alternator protects itself from
being overloaded.
Multi-phase output

 To utilize more of the rotor poles, another stator winding is added in the position
shown in Figure 7.27.
 This gives two independent outputs as shown in the graph.
 Stator winding B gives an output that peaks at a rotor position 45° after the output
peak of winding A; the output from the two windings is 45° out of phase and this is
called two phase output.
 Similarly, if another stator winding is added and all three are spaced out around a
multi-pole rotor, then a three-phase output is obtained (Figure 7.28).
 As the number of magnetic poles is increased, each individual cycle will be shorter,
therefore the larger the number of AC cycles produced in one revolution of the rotor.
 This will produce a comparatively smooth peak output of current.

Control of magnet strength

 When the engine is operating at high speed the alternator rotates rapidly and the very
high electromotive force output from a permanent magnet type alternator causes both
damage to the alternator and overcharging of the battery.
 To overcome these problems, the permanent magnet on the rotor is replaced by an
electromagnet.
  The use of the electromagnet arrangement allows the strength of the magnetic field to
be controlled by varying the current supplied to the winding; the greater the current
passed to create the field, the stronger the magnet.

Figure 7.29 illustrates the components of a modern alternator that generates the electrical
energy.
  The type shown is a three-phase, twelve-pole machine.
 Current is delivered to the electromagnet rotor via slip rings; these are two rings of
copper onto which rub two carbon brushes.
 The three sets of stator windings, which are interconnected in a star or delta
arrangement, have three output leads, one for each phase.

Rectification of alternating current to direct current

 The alternating current (AC) produced by an alternator is unsuitable for battery

charging because the current at the output terminals rapidly alternate from positive to
negative.
 The current passing to either of the battery terminals would therefore also rapidly
change from positive to negative and no complete positive charge could be passed to
the battery positive terminal (the negative elements of the current would cancel the
positive elements thus producing no charging effect at all).
 The output from the alternator must therefore be ‘rectified’ so that it becomes a direct
current or DC output.
 Rectification is now achieved by using a semiconductor device called a diode, which
forms part of the rectifier assembly.

Semiconductors

Certain materials, such as silicon and germanium, are neither good electrical conductors nor
insulators; they come in a borderline category.
If semiconductor crystals are doped in a special way by adding traces of certain impurities
and then arranged with other semiconductors, a range of solid-state electronic devices can be
obtained.

Common examples of semi-conductors are diodes and transistors.

The diode is an electronic ‘one-way valve’ that allows current to flow in one direction but not
the other.

It is represented by the symbol shown in Figure 7.30a.

The arrowhead indicates the direction in which the diode freely conducts a conventional-flow
current.

Note: The term ‘conventional flow’ is used when the current is assumed to flow from
positive to negative.

Diode rectifier

 Figure 7.30b shows how a diode can be used in a simple circuit to rectify AC to DC
current. The one-way action of a single diode blocks the reverse current flow
(negative flow) and therefore leaves only the positive flow.
 This provides an output called ‘half-wave rectification’, as shown in the graph.
 The next stage is then to use four blocking diodes, set to form a bridge circuit (Figure
7.30c). With this arrangement, the four diodes not only allow the positive elements of
the current to pass to the battery positive terminal, but also, they allow negative
elements of the current to pass to the negative battery terminal.
 This is, however, achieved irrespective of which way the current is flowing (polarity)
through the alternator stator windings.
 This level of rectification is known as ‘full wave rectification’ as shown in Figure
7.30d.
 A three-phase output from an alternator with three stator windings requires a rectifier
having six output diodes arranged in the manner shown in Figure 7.31.
 This diode network ensures that the current output is always ‘in one direction’.
Irrespective of the position and direction of the current-flow arrow on the stator
windings, terminal B+ will always be positive.

Battery reverse flow

 When the engine is stationary (and at other times when the alternator output voltage is
lower than the battery voltage) current would tend to flow from the battery to the
alternator, thus discharging the battery.
 The one-way characteristic of the diodes in an alternator rectifier automatically
prevents this.
  Because the diodes prevent discharge of the battery when the alternator is not turning
(engine switched off), there is no need for any cut out or switch to disconnect the
battery positive terminal from the alternator.
 This inherent feature means that the main output terminal on the alternator is always
connected directly to the positive battery terminal.
 It should be noted that this connection is permanently ‘live’ and this should be
remembered when the alternator is either disconnected or removed.

Voltage output control

 The output from an alternator must be limited to a voltage of about 14.2 V; this value
equals the potential difference of a battery that is nearing its fully charged state.
 Ensuring that the alternator’s maximum output voltage is also around 14.2 V allows it
to charge at a high rate when the battery is discharged, but as the battery approaches
its fully charged state, the charging rate will gradually reduce to zero.
 It should, however, be remembered from Faraday’s experiments, that the faster the
magnetic field is cut, the greater the output. Because the alternator is driven by the
engine, the faster the engine rotates, the faster the alternator rotates.
 This means that the magnetic fields within the alternator will be cut more quickly and
higher voltage outputs will be produced.
 Alternator output must therefore be controlled (regulated) to ensure that overcharging
of the battery does not occur, or that electrical consumers such as light bulbs are not
damaged.
 Alternator output is controlled by varying the current supplied to the rotor field (also
part of Faraday’s experiments) because lowering the current supplied to an
electromagnet will reduce the strength of the magnetic field thus reducing the output
generated.
 The regulator performs this current control function by using electronic devices in the
form of diodes and transistors.
 These are retained in a ‘micro’ metal container, which is usually mounted under the
alternator cover.
 Solid-state devices, such as diodes and transistors, are highly sensitive to heat and
voltage surges, so during operation and repair, precautions need to be taken to ensure
that the regulator (and rectifier pack) is protected from exposure to these conditions.
Alternator operation and construction

The alternator circuit shown in Figure 7.32 includes a charge-warning lamp to signal to the
driver when the system is not operating. In addition to this duty, the warning lamp circuit is
used initially to excite the field (initiating the rotor-winding magnetic field).

 When the ignition is switched on, the small current needed to operate the warning
lamp also passes through the rotor winding then through the regulator to earth.
 This current flow passing the rotor winding creates a weak magnetic field which is
sufficient to enable the charging operation to begin when the alternator starts to rotate.
 Naturally this operation will not occur if there is an open circuit because the bulb has
‘blown’. Note that unless 12 V is obtained from the lead that supplies the ‘IND’
terminal, the alternator will not charge.
 When the alternator is operating, three field diodes supply the field with a current as
dictated by the regulator.
 As the engine speed rises from stationary, the output voltage at the field diodes also
rises. The
 increase in output voltage reduces the current through the warning lamp circuit and
causes the warning lamp to extinguish.
Surge protection diode

 Breakdown of the main transistor in a regulator occurs if the alternator is charging and
a fault such as a poor connection causes the output voltage to suddenly increase.
 To avoid damage to the electronic components, a surge protection diode is sometimes
fitted between the ‘IND’ lead and earth.
 The special diode (referred to as a Zener diode) only conducts current when the surge
voltage exceeds a given value.

Construction of the alternator

 The construction of a modern alternator is shown in Figure 7.33.

 The engine crankshaft drives the alternator by a ‘vee-belt’ at a higher speed than the
engine. An alternator can therefore produce a high output voltage even when the
engine speed is comparatively low.
 Alternators require very good drive belt tension to prevent slip when a large current is
being produced (high alternator load); the alternator can operate at speeds up to
15,000 rpm.
 In view of these operating conditions, ball bearings are used to support the rotor.
 Cooling air is also circulated through the alternator components by a cooling fan fixed
to the rotor shaft.
THE STARTER SYSTEM

7.6.1 Introduction

 To enable an internal-combustion engine to start up and run, the engine needs to be

cranked (rotated) at a speed of around 100 rpm, which then enables the fuel to be
atomized and the mixture to be compressed sufficiently.
 The cranking of the engine was once carried out manually, using a starting handle
(connected to the crankshaft), to turn the engine.
 However, modern cars use an electric starting system which makes use of an
electrically operated starter motor to spin or crank the engine over to reach this speed.
 To obtain sufficient cranking torque from the robust electric motor, a large current
(amperage) is required.
 On a cold morning, this may be as high as 500 A although between 100 and 150 amps
are more normal values for light vehicles.
 To carry such high amperages, suitable thick, short supply cables and a good battery
capable of delivering this high current are required.

The complete system may be considered in three sections:

● electric starter motor

● starting circuit

● mechanical engagement systems.

7.6.2 Operating principles of electric starter motors

 The motor converts electrical energy supplied from the battery into mechanical
power.
 This is achieved by using an electromagnetic principle similar to that employed for
the generation of electrical energy (refer to section 7.5).
 Although the principles employed are the same as the generator, the principle is
reversed;
 current is passed to the motor which causes it to turn whereas a generator is turned to
create electric current.
 When the ‘like’ poles of two magnets are brought together, they push each other
apart.
 From this experiment, the expressions ‘like poles repel’ and ‘unlike poles attract’ are
obtained.
 A motor uses the ‘repel action’ to produce a force, which in turn produces movement
(Figure 7.34).
Electrical system only needs 80 to 100 amps of current for general running, even when all
accessories are operating. Then, why battery does have a rating of 450 to 740 amps or even
more. The main reason for the battery's storage capacity is to operate the starter, and a quick
look at the numbers will demonstrate why this is so important:

Let's take a 500-amp-rated battery for example. At 12 volts, this 500 amp battery is capable
of putting out 6000 watts. We need all the wattage we can get to develop enough horsepower
to turn the engine over for ignition and one horsepower (or the power necessary to lift 550
pounds (249.47 kg) one foot in one second) equals 746 watts. Our battery, therefore, puts out
just over eight horsepower. That's just enough for a couple hundred revolutions of the engine
before the charge is exhausted. Starters are incredibly strong motors that work in a hostile
environment. They are the most important part of the starting system (Fig. 19.8) or circuit,
consisting of the following:

Flywheel ring gear - This is a toothed ring that is fitted to the outside of the engine's flywheel.
Matching teeth on the starter motor mesh with this gear in order to spin the crankshaft.

Starter solenoid (Relay) - The starter solenoid has very large contacts to carry the battery's
full current. Its wire coil is actuated by a smaller current from the ignition switch, at which
time the iron core slams down to make contact and turn on the starter motor. Most non-Ford
starter motors employ a solenoid built into the motor itself. This type of solenoid not only
provides the motor's electrical power but also mechanically engages the starter's drive gear
onto the flywheel. It is commonly known as the BENDIX type of solenoid. Such solenoids
operate in three stages, the disengaged, partially engaged and engaged. In the disengaged
position the drive gear is released and no current is flowing. In the partially engaged stage,
current from the starter switch flows through both the pull-in and the hold-in coils. Both coils
draw the plunger inward, causing it to pull the shift lever and engage the pinion gear. When
the plunger is pulled into the coil all the way, the pinion fully engages the ring gear. When
the ring gear is fully engaged, engine cranking begins. When the engine starts the hold-in coil
will cut out and the plunger will move out, retracting the pinion and opening the starter
switch.

Starter motor - This is a powerful electric motor that engages the car's flywheel in order to
spin the crankshaft. As in all electric motors, the starter is composed of windings of wire that
form loops, ending at the commutator segments (remember these from the generator?). The
armature coils are mounted on the motor's central shaft (supported with bearings) and the
field coils are formed into four or more "shoes", placed inside the steel frame of the starter.
Brushes are used to create electrical contact to the commutator segments and when current is
fed into two of the four brushes, it flows through all the loops of the armature and shoe
windings and out the other two brushes. This creates a magnetic field around each loop. As
the armature turns, the loop will move to a position where the current flow reverses. This
constant reversal of current flow allows the armature and field coils to repel each other and
spin the motor. The greater the current flowing in the coils, the greater the magnetic forces,
and the greater the power of the motor.

The copper loops and field windings are heavy enough to carry a large amount of current
with minimum resistance. Since they draw heavy amounts of current, they must not be
operated on a continuous basis for longer than 30 seconds. After cranking for 30 seconds, it is
wise to wait a couple of minutes to let the starter motor dissipate some of its heat. Starters
heat quickly, so prolonged use can cause serious damage. A typical symptom of overheating
starter motors is extremely slow, laboured engine-cranking.

Various wiring designs are used in starter motors and one of the most popular is the four pole,
three winding setup. Two of the windings are in series with themselves and the armature. One
winding does not pass through the armature, but goes directly to the ground. This Shunt
Winding aids with additional starting torque. However, as the starter speed increases, the
shunt still draws a heavy current and tends to keep starter speed within acceptable limits.
The Lighting System

Introduction

Many types of lights are required to meet the regulations set by countries in which the vehicle
is sold.

Therefore, the modern vehicle is fitted with many different types of lights for safety and for

driver/passenger comfort and convenience.

Typically, each of these lights is grouped in one of a set of electrical circuits, which include
the following:

Side and rear lamps

Including lamps for the number plate, glove compartment and instrument panel.

Headlamps

Including two sets of lamps, a ‘dip beam’ to avoid dazzle to oncoming drivers and a ‘main
beam’ set to provide a powerful light while driving in dark conditions.

Rear fog lamp(s)

Used for ‘guarding’ the rear of the vehicle in conditions of poor visibility, e.g., fog, snow etc.

Auxiliary driving lamps

Including front fog lamps which provide additional light to the driver in adverse driving
conditions (usually mounted below the front bumper).

Reversing lamps

Providing an indication to other road users that the vehicle is reversing while providing some
light to aid the driver when reversing.

Brake lights
To warn following drivers that the vehicle is slowing down. An additional ‘third’ or Centre
brake light is now fitted to many vehicles to provide an additional warning to drivers when
the vehicle is slowing down.

Directional indicators

Provide an indication to other road users in which direction the driver of the vehicle is
intending to travel.

The indictors are required to flash at a given rate.

Hazard warning lights

All of the indictors flash simultaneously to warn other road users of the impending danger of
a parked vehicle (usually used when the vehicle has broken down).

The warning lights must operate with the ignition in the off position.

Instrument panel lights

For illuminating the instrumentation and additional fascia-mounted components during dark
conditions.

The panel lights are normally connected so they illuminate whenever the sidelights are
switched on.

7.7.2 Circuit arrangement

A very simple light circuit consists of the battery, a switch and a lamp. When a single switch
controls more than one lamp, the lamps are connected in parallel.

Connecting the lamps in parallel ensures that if one lamp fails, the remaining lamps remain
illuminated (refer to sections 7.3.5 and 7.3.6).

To reduce the length of cable used, most lighting circuits use an earth return layout.

Note: Good, clean connections are required at the numerous body earth connection points. A
‘dirty’ connection (i.e., poor earth) causes a high resistance.

The high resistance reduces the current flow through the lamp circuit, which results in a
dimmer light.

Circuit diagrams shown in workshop manuals are normally in a compact schematic form.
The use of this format makes the wiring diagram simpler to follow and understand the
operation of the circuit. Figure 7.41 shows a simplified lighting circuit.

The parallel light circuit has lamps controlled by three switches, 1, 2 and 3:

● Switch 1 operates the side and rear lamps. It also supplies switch 2.

● Switch 2 operates the headlamps, and supplies switch 3.

● Switch 3 distributes the current to either the main beam or the dip-beam headlamp bulbs.

Note that there are established ‘conventions or standards, for symbols when creating wiring
diagrams.
 In general, these conventions are followed by vehicle manufacturers, but some
diagrams may be created in specific formats that are developed by the manufacturers
or the publishers of diagrams.
 It is therefore necessary to refer to any additional information that is supplied with the
diagrams that may indicate the meanings of symbols, etc.
Circuit protection (refer to section 7.3.10)

 A single fuse, mounted in the main supply cable, protects a circuit in the event of a
short circuit.
 However, the use of a single fuse to protect the entire external lighting circuit would
result in the total loss of illumination if the fuse were to fail.
 This is a dangerous situation when the vehicle is travelling at speed along a dark road.
 To avoid this danger, manufacturers usually fit separate fuses to protect each light
circuit. Figure 7.42 shows a lighting system which incorporates a series of fuses.
Relay control (refer to section 7.3.12)

 The use of brighter headlamps requires higher wattage bulbs, which in turn increases
the current through the lighting circuit.
 A high current passing through a main lighting switch, fitted with a small set of
contacts would soon result in the failure of the switch.
 To relieve the main lighting switch of the high current load, a relay is used.
 The relay acts as a heavy-duty switch (usually positioned remotely) with the main
lighting switch controlling the operation of the relay.
 When a small current is supplied from the main lighting switch to the relay, the relay
switches on the high current and the headlamp’s function.

AUXILIARY LIGHTING AND EQUIPMENT

Introduction

 The modern motor vehicle contains many items of electrically and electronically
controlled equipment, some of which have already been described in this book.
 Other additional systems and components are classed as auxiliary equipment.
 History shows that what was once a non-essential item becomes a statutory
requirement, e.g., warning horns, windscreen wipers and washers, directional
indicators and brake lamps. Nowadays all new vehicles must be fitted with these
systems, and statutory regulations, framed by the EU, govern the construction and
method of operation.
 With advances in technology and customer demand, the vehicle manufacturer fits
more and more electrical equipment to the vehicle.
 Some of these systems may be regarded as desirable but non-essential, whereas other
items must be fitted to meet statutory requirements.

Auxiliary equipment fitted on a modern vehicle includes:

Horn

The law requires an audible warning device which emits a continuous note that is neither too
loud nor harsh in sound.

Relays and fuses:

All tractors are wired so that the battery's main cable connects to the starter motor windings
(the thick cable is needed for large current flow). This wire must be switched on and off, and
it would be costly and inefficient to route it through the ignition switch. Hence a relay is
necessary.
Relays are devices that utilize a central iron core fitted closely to the inside of a coil of wire.
When the wire is energized the iron core will be drawn down the length of the coil, the
direction dependent upon the direction of current flow. If the relay's iron core is fitted with
large, high current-carrying contacts it can be used as a high-current switch. Relays are used
for horns, electric fans, air conditioning clutches, etc. and the most important one is the
starter solenoid.

Almost everything in a tractor is wired through a fuse. Fuses are designed to fail when too
much current is drawn through the device. This prevents heating of the wires and subsequent
melting of the insulation, followed usually by fire!

Fuses are simple in design. Inside a fuse is a soft wire with a specific cross-sectional
thickness. This dimension dictates how many amps can be carried before the wire melts. Too
many amps and the fuse fails, saving the rest of the circuit from damage.

Typical horn circuit having various components are put together to form a working system:

Battery voltage travels through a high current wire (red) through the relay to the horn and
also through a smaller wire (blue) through the ignition switch to the relay's low-current coil.
Important thing is that horn circuit is always "hot" or "live" when the ignition switch is turned
on and all that's needed is a path to ground (Fig. 19.9).

Windscreen wipers

The law requires windscreen wipers that operate effectively.

Windscreen washers

The law requires a screen washer to be fitted to clean the driver’s side of the windscreen.

Directional indicators

The law requires that three, colored signal lamps are fitted in approved positions on each side
of the vehicle, together with a tell-tale indicator in the instrument

The LED system effectively combines a very large number of LED lights in one unit to
achieve the total required light output. Book 2 provides additional information on these light
systems.

7.7.7 Lamp marking

 Regulations state that all bulbs, as well as other lighting components used on a
vehicle, must be marked with the letter ‘E’ and a number that identifies the country
where approval was given.
 The E mark indicates that the component conforms to the EU standard specified for a
given application.

7.7.8 Additional vehicle lighting

 Side and rear lights also form part of the main lighting system.
 Because there is not the same requirement for a high light output from the side and
rear lights, (as is the case for the headlights) they generally use the less expensive
filament-type bulbs.
 Different wattage bulbs are used for side-light, rear light and brake-light bulbs so care
should be taken when fitting replacement units.
 Regulations apply to the wattage of many bulbs, which again means that checks
should be made to ensure that the correct bulbs are fitted. 7.8

AUXILIARY LIGHTING AND EQUIPMENT

panel. The rating of each lamp is specified together with

the flashing rate (60–120 flashes per minute).

Brake lamp

The law requires the fitting of a lamp which automatically lights up when the brake is
applied.

Reversing lamp

 The law states that no more than two white lamps may be used, the wattage of each
lamp not being greater than 24 W.
 Regulations also cover the switching requirements of such lamps.
  Note: Lighting regulations are revised periodically, and vary from one country to
another, so when a bulb, or a lamp component is renewed, it is necessary to fit the
type recommended by the manufacturer to comply with your local regulations.

Instrumentation systems

These include: fuel level, coolant temperature, and vehicle condition monitoring
arrangements for detecting system faults such as failure warning lights.

Other auxiliary electrical equipment fitted to a vehicle may include:

● clock

● interior and courtesy lights

● fan and heater motor, air condition and climate control

● rear and front window heaters/demisters

● window winding motors

● central door locking and alarm/immobilizer systems

● in-car entertainment (ICE) systems

● door mirror adjustment and mirror heating systems

● sunroof control motors

● satellite navigation systems

● telephone systems

● seat position motors.

 Most auxiliary systems are fused, either in groups or individually.

 Motor cars use a large number of fused circuits to provide maximum protection and
minimum loss of component or system operation when a single fuse ‘blows.
 Normally the fuses, or other forms of circuit breaker, are mounted together on one or
more fuse panels.
 A circuit layout showing some of the main items of auxiliary equipment is shown in
simplified form in Figure 7.48, together with typical fuse ratings. It will be seen that
each item of auxiliary equipment has its own individual circuit.
 It is impossible for the vehicle manufacturer to publish the entire electrical system on
one wiring diagram due to the large number of items of electrical equipment fitted to
a modern vehicle.
 Instead, manufacturers publish a number of individual circuit wiring diagrams
showing, for example, the wiring layout of the engine management system, another
for the charging system, and another for the starting system.
 Note that most vehicle manufacturers publish this type of information in a format that
can be viewed on a computer screen.
 Whenever a fault has to be pin-pointed, the wiring diagram shows the interconnection,
and location, of the various circuit elements.
 This information is necessary if the cause of a particular problem is to be diagnosed.
 Due to the large subject area and limited space available in this book, the study of
auxiliary systems will only provide information on simple instrumentation.
Directional indicators

 Figure 7.49 shows the layout of a typical directional indicator circuit, incorporating
the hazard warning light circuit.
 When the indicator switch is moved to the left or right, current flows through the
appropriate indicator lamp circuit.
 Regular interruption of the current to give a flashing light is performed by the flasher
unit; this is situated on the supply side (fused) of the indicator switch.
 If a vehicle breaks down on the highway the driver should be able to warn other
drivers by arranging all the directional indicator lamps to flash simultaneously.
 This hazard warning circuit is activated by an additional switch controlled by the
driver.
 Various types of flasher unit have been used to control the flashing of indicators:
thermal, capacitor and electronic.
 These units all have three electrical connections: input, output and earth.
 A flasher unit has to meet international standards, which include the provision of an
audible and visual system to signal the failure of a lamp.
 Behavior of the ‘tell-tale’ lamp varies with the type of system; a thermal vane-type
flasher causes the lamp to stay on if one bulb fails, whereas an electronic type causes
the lamp to flash at twice the normal rate.
Thermal-type flasher unit

 The vane-type or thermal flasher unit, is a simple, low-cost unit which consists of a
rectangular, snap-action, spring-steel strip.
 Operation of the indicator switch instantly activates the signal lamps.
 The current passing through the metal strip heats the strip causing the strip to expand
and open a set of contacts.
 The indicator circuit is broken and the signal lights extinguish.
 A short time after this action, the lack of current causes the strip to cool and contract;
the contacts then close again and the signal lights illuminate.
 The cycle is repeated until the indicator switch is turned off.

Electronic-type flasher unit

 All cars today are fitted with an electronic type of flasher unit.
 The unit normally controls the lamp current with an electromagnetic relay.
 The relay is energized by an electronic circuit, which may use a capacitor as a timer to
control the rate of flashing.
 The flasher unit also controls the operation of the hazard lights.
7.8.3 Thermal-type instrument gauges

 Thermal-type gauges were used on most vehicles until more advanced electronic
systems were developed.
 The principles of operation for both the thermal-type fuel gauge and temperature
gauge are very similar.
 Gauge circuits are supplied with a constant voltage from a voltage stabilizer.
 The gauge indicators use the bending action of a bimetallic strip when it is heated.
 Note: A bimetallic strip is a piece of metal made by laminating two different types of
metal together, e.g., brass and steel.
 When the strip is heated, one metal expands at a greater rate than the other, so the
strip bends, with the metal that expands at a greater rate on the outside.

Fuel gauge

 In the case of the fuel gauge, the bimetallic strip has a winding of fine wire around it.
 When an electric current is passed through the winding it heats the bimetallic strip
which then bends (Figure 7.50).
 The amount that the strip bends depends on the current that flows through the heating
coil; the greater the current, the greater the bending action.
 Assuming that the voltage stabilizer provides a constant voltage to the gauge, the
earth path from the gauge then passes through a variable resistor (potentiometer)
through to the earth point.
 The resistance of the potentiometer varies when a movable contact on the resistance
track is moved (the same action is used on many volume controls and light dimmers).
 If the movable contact is connected to a float assembly in the fuel tank, when the fuel
level changes, the float will rise and fall thus changing the resistance of the
potentiometer.
 The change in resistance causes a change in the current flow which is sensed by the
fuel gauge thus altering the position of the indicator needle on the gauge.
 The lower the sender resistance the greater the electrical current flow in the fuel gauge
circuit, which results in a larger deflection of the fuel gauge needle (gauge shows
full).
 As the fuel is used, the resistance of the sender unit gradually increases, reducing the
 current flow through the circuit, which results in a smaller deflection of the gauge
needle (gauge shows empty).
 A false reading will occur unless the voltage applied to the circuit is kept constant;
this is the duty of the voltage stabilizer.
 Modern vehicles are fitted with an electronic type of voltage stabilizer. Older vehicles
had
 a bimetallic type of voltage stabilizer.
 Note: Care must be taken to avoid an explosion when testing the operation of the
system with the sensor.
 Checking the sensor requires its removal from the fuel tank.
 It is highly dangerous to generate sparks in an atmosphere where both oxygen and
petrol vapor are present.
Engine temperature gauge

 The principle of a conventional thermal-type gauge used to indicate engine

temperature is similar to that used to indicate the contents of the fuel tank.
 Because the gauge reading is affected by supply voltage to the circuit, the supply
voltage must be stabilized in the same way.
 In many cases, the same voltage stabilizer can be used.
 The main difference in operation between the fuel gauge system and the engine
temperature system is the type of resistance used to affect the flow of current.
 The engine temperature sensor is the resistance used in this system.
 The temperature sensor is generally situated in the coolant system, on the engine side
of the
 thermostat.
 The sensor construction includes a piece of semiconductor material which has the
characteristic of changing its resistance with changes in temperature.
 This type of semiconductor is referred to as a ‘thermistor’ (a combination of the
words thermal and resistor).
 This thermistor varies its resistance in the opposite way to most metals: when the
temperature of the thermistor increases, its resistance decreases.
 This characteristic is referred to as a ‘negative temperature coefficient’ (NTC).
 The thermistor’s NTC of resistance causes the resistance to vary from approximately
500 Ω at 30°C down to 20 Ω at 115°C.
  On one end of the temperature sensor is a brass bulb.
 When the sensor is located on the engine (usually by screwing into a convenient part
of the cylinder head adjacent to a coolant water passage), the brass bulb is in contact
with the coolant and is therefore able to transfer the heat of the coolant to the
thermistor.
 The circuit for a bimetallic indicator gauge and thermistor is shown in Figure 7.51.
 As is the case with the fuel gauge system, the sensing resistance forms part of the
earth circuit.
 In the case of the coolant temperature sensor, the current must flow through the
 thermistor to reach earth.
 When the thermistor resistance is high, less electrical current will flow in the
temperature gauge circuit, which results in a small deflection of the gauge needle
(gauge shows cold).
 As the engine temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor gradually
decreases thus increasing the current flow through the circuit.
 The increase in current flow causes the bimetallic strip to heat up and therefore begin
to bend, which results in a larger deflection of the gauge needle (gauge shows hot).

Note: Damage will occur if the thermistor is connected directly to a battery.

Electronic gauge systems

 Many modern vehicles are fitted with an electronic control unit (ECU), which
controls the operation of the gauges together with other instrumentation.
 The ECU monitors the information received from the various sensors, then controls
the appropriate gauge from the relevant sensor signal.
 During vehicle movement, the fuel is constantly surging around the fuel tank. A float
will therefore constantly move up and down with the movement of the fuel which can
result in continuous movement of the fuel gauge needle.
 However, most electronically-controlled fuel gauge systems dampen out the
constantly varying fuel gauge sender signal.
 The ECU averages out the sensor signal over a short period of time, providing the
driver with a steady gauge reading.
 From the information received from the sensor signals, the ECU can also control the
operation of a warning lamp in the instrument cluster to alert the driver to an
impending danger (e.g., low fuel or high engine temperature.)
 Note that many gauges and indicators for the driver are of the digital display type.
 Although the visual presentation to the driver is obviously different from the
traditional analogue moving needle gauges, and the way in which the display is
changed or controlled is also different, the principle of operation remains the same.
 The electrical system requires routine maintenance to ensure that the electrical energy
required by the vehicle systems (ignition, fuel, lighting etc.) is available at all times,
and that the electrical systems are functioning correctly to meet the relevant
regulations.