Lesson IV.

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

Subject-verb agreement refers to the grammatical rule that the verb in a sentence must agree with
the subject in number and person. Here’s a comprehensive list of rules for subject-verb agreement, along
with examples and explanations:
1. Singular Subjects Take Singular Verbs
When the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular.
Example:
o She runs every morning.
Explanation: "She" is a singular subject, so the verb "runs" must also be in its singular
form.

2. Plural Subjects Take Plural Verbs

When the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example:
o They run every morning.
Explanation: "They" is a plural subject, so the verb "run" is in its plural form.
3. Compound Subjects Joined by 'And' Take a Plural Verb
When two or more singular subjects are joined by "and," the verb is plural.
Example:
o The cat and the dog are playing outside.
Explanation: "The cat" and "the dog" are two singular subjects joined by "and," so the
verb "are" is plural.
4. Subjects Joined by 'Or' or 'Nor' Take a Verb That Agrees with the Closest Subject
When subjects are joined by "or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the subject closest to it.
Example:
o Neither the teacher nor the students know the answer.
Explanation: The verb "know" agrees with the closest subject "students," which is
plural.
o Neither the students nor the teacher knows the answer.
Explanation: The verb "knows" agrees with the closest subject "teacher," which is
singular.
5. Indefinite Pronouns Usually Take Singular Verbs
Most indefinite pronouns like "everyone," "someone," "each," and "nobody" take a singular verb.
Example:
Everyone likes the new policy.
o Explanation: "Everyone" is an indefinite pronoun that is considered singular, so the
verb "likes" is singular.

Exceptions:
o Some indefinite pronouns like "few," "many," "both," and "several" take a plural
verb.
o Many were invited to the party.
Explanation: "Many" is plural, so the verb "were" is plural.
6. Collective Nouns Usually Take Singular Verbs
Collective nouns like "team," "group," "family," etc., usually take a singular verb.
 Example:
o The team wins every match.
Explanation: "Team" is a collective noun that is treated as singular, so the verb "wins" is
singular.

 Exception:
If the collective noun is emphasizing the individuals within the group, a plural verb may
be used.
o The team are arguing among themselves.
Explanation: Here, "team" is seen as individual members, so the verb "are" is plural.
7. Titles of Books, Movies, and Other Works Take Singular Verbs
Even if a title seems plural, it takes a singular verb.
Example:
o "The Chronicles of Narnia" is a famous book series.
Explanation: The title "The Chronicles of Narnia" is treated as a single entity, so the
verb "is" is singular.
8. Subjects that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb
Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning (e.g., "news," "mathematics," "measles").
Example:
o The news is on at 7 PM.
Explanation: "News" is plural in form but singular in meaning, so the verb "is" is
singular.
9. "There" or "Here" Sentences Follow the Subject
In sentences that begin with "there" or "here," the verb agrees with the subject that follows it.
Example:
o There is a book on the table.
Explanation: The subject "book" is singular, so the verb "is" is singular.
o Here are the keys you lost.
Explanation: The subject "keys" is plural, so the verb "are" is plural.
10. Subject Followed by a Phrase or Clause
When the subject is followed by a phrase or clause, the verb agrees with the main subject, not
with a noun or pronoun in the phrase or clause.
Example:
o The bouquet of flowers is beautiful.
Explanation: "Bouquet" is the main subject, which is singular, so the verb "is" is
singular.
11. "One of the" Takes a Singular Verb
When the subject is "one of the [plural noun]," the verb is singular.
Example:
o One of the students was late.
Explanation: "One" is the subject and is singular, so the verb "was" is singular.
12. Expressions of Time, Money, Distance, and Weight
When used as subjects, expressions of time, money, distance, and weight usually take singular
verbs.
Example:
o Five dollars is too much to pay.
 Explanation: "Five dollars" is treated as a singular amount, so the verb "is" is singular.
13. Gerunds and Infinitives as Subjects Take Singular Verbs
When a gerund (verb + -ing) or an infinitive (to + verb) is the subject, it takes a singular verb.
Example:
o Running is a good exercise.
Explanation: "Running" is a gerund and is treated as a singular subject, so the verb "is"
is singular.
o To read books is enjoyable.
Explanation: "To read books" is an infinitive phrase and is treated as singular, so the
verb "is" is singular.
14. Nouns That Look Plural but Are Singular in Meaning
Some nouns that end in -s appear to be plural but are singular in meaning (e.g., "physics,"
"news").
Example:
o Physics is a difficult subject.
Explanation: "Physics" looks plural but is treated as a singular subject, so the verb "is" is
singular.
15. "None" Can Be Singular or Plural
"None" can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the context.
 Example:
o None of the cake is left.
Explanation: "Cake" is singular, so "none" takes a singular verb "is."
o None of the students were late.
Explanation: "Students" is plural, so "none" takes a plural verb "were."
Lesson V. CORRECT USAGE

Leila decided at the beginning of Leila’s first semester of college that Leila would read for thirty
minutes every day. Leila knew that Leila would be taking a literature class with a lot of reading , so
instead of buying hard copies of all the novels Leila’s teacher assigned, Leila downloaded the e-books.
That way Leila could save some of Leila’s allowance and have all the novels saved in Leila’s mobile
phone. “What a convenient way of learning,” Leila thought.

Did this paragraph feel awkward to you? Let’s try again using pronouns.

Leila decided at the beginning of her first semester of college that she would read for thirty
minutes every day. She knew that she would be taking a literature class with a lot of reading , so instead
of buying hard copies of all the novels her teacher assigned, Leila downloaded the e-books. That way she
could save some of her allowance and have all the novels saved in her mobile phone. “What a convenient
way of learning,” she thought.

The second paragraph is much more natural. Instead of repeating nouns multiple times, we were
able to use PRONOUNS.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement refers to the rule that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the
noun or pronoun it replaces) in number, gender, and person. The antecedent is the word that the pronoun
refers to or replaces. Here's a breakdown of the rules with examples and explanations:

1. Number Agreement
A singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun, and a plural antecedent requires a plural
pronoun.
o Example 1 (Singular):
Every student must bring his or her notebook.
 Explanation: "Student" is singular, so the pronoun must be singular ("his or
her").
o Example 2 (Plural):
All the students must bring their notebooks.
 Explanation: "Students" is plural, so the pronoun must be plural ("their").

2. Gender Agreement
The pronoun must agree with the antecedent in gender.
o Example 1 (Masculine):
The boy lost his keys.
 Explanation: "Boy" is masculine, so the pronoun must be masculine ("his").
o Example 2 (Feminine):
The girl lost her keys.
 Explanation: "Girl" is feminine, so the pronoun must be feminine ("her").
o Example 3 (Neutral/Unknown Gender):
Someone left their umbrella in the hall.
 Explanation: "Someone" is singular and gender-neutral, but "their" is often
used in modern English to avoid gender specificity.
3. Person Agreement
The pronoun must agree with the antecedent in person (first, second, or third person).
 o Example 1 (First Person):
I will complete my work on time.
 Explanation: "I" is first person, so the pronoun must be first person ("my").
o Example 2 (Second Person):
You must bring your ID.
 Explanation: "You" is second person, so the pronoun must be second person
("your").
o Example 3 (Third Person):
She finished her assignment early.
 Explanation: "She" is third person, so the pronoun must be third person
("her").
4. Indefinite Pronouns
Some indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, someone, nobody) are singular and require
singular pronouns, while others (e.g., both, few, many) are plural and require plural
pronouns.
o Example 1 (Singular):
Everyone should bring his or her own lunch.
 Explanation: "Everyone" is singular, so the pronoun must be singular ("his or
her").
o Example 2 (Plural):
Few of the participants gave their opinions.
 Explanation: "Few" is plural, so the pronoun must be plural ("their").
5. Collective Nouns
Collective nouns (e.g., team, group, family) may take either singular or plural pronouns
depending on whether the group is being considered as a single unit or as individual
members.
o Example 1 (Singular Unit):
The team won its first game.
 Explanation: "Team" is being referred to as a single unit, so the pronoun is
singular ("its").
o Example 2 (Individual Members):
The team were arguing among themselves.
 Explanation: "Team" is being referred to as individual members, so the
pronoun is plural ("themselves").
6. Compound Subjects Joined by "and"
When a compound subject is joined by "and," it typically takes a plural pronoun.
o Example:
John and Mary brought their books.
 Explanation: "John and Mary" together form a plural subject, so the pronoun
is plural ("their").
7. Compound Subjects Joined by "or" or "nor"
When a compound subject is joined by "or" or "nor," the pronoun should agree with the
nearer subject.
o Example 1:
Neither the manager nor the employees have finished their work.
 Explanation: "Employees" is nearer to the pronoun and is plural, so the
pronoun is plural ("their").
 oExample 2:
Either the teachers or the principal will give his or her speech.
 Explanation: "Principal" is nearer to the pronoun and is singular, so the
pronoun is singular ("his or her").
8. Pronouns with "Each," "Every," and "Many a"
These words are followed by singular nouns and therefore take singular pronouns.
o Example 1:
Each student should bring his or her ID.
 Explanation: "Each" indicates singularity, so the pronoun is singular ("his or
her").
o Example 2:
Many a man has met his destiny.
 Explanation: "Many a" also indicates singularity, so the pronoun is singular
("his").
9. Collective Pronouns
Words like "all," "any," "more," "most," "none," and "some" can be singular or plural
depending on the context.
o Example 1 (Singular):
All of the cake is gone; it was delicious.
 Explanation: "All" refers to a singular noun ("cake"), so the pronoun is
singular ("it").
o Example 2 (Plural):
All of the cookies are gone; they were delicious.
 Explanation: "All" refers to a plural noun ("cookies"), so the pronoun is
plural ("they").

10. Pronouns Referring to Animals or Things

When referring to animals or inanimate objects, use "it" for singular and "they" for plural.
o Example 1:
The dog wagged its tail.
 Explanation: "Dog" is an animal, so the pronoun is "it."
o Example 2:
The books are on the shelf; they are old.
 Explanation: "Books" are inanimate objects, so the pronoun is "they."

USE OF DO, DOES, DID

The words do, does, and did often cause confusion in the English language. Using them correctly
helps you create effective and correct sentence.

How to use Do, Does and Did

1. Do, Does and Did are used as auxiliary verbs to ask yes-no questions, to express negatives and to
emphasize an idea. They are usually paired with the based form of the verb

a. Asking yes-no question

 Do. We use do when the subject is I, you, we, or they.

Do I know you?
 Do you come from England?
Do they want to come with us?

 Does. We use does with third person singular pronouns i.e when the subject is he, she, it.
Does he work with you?
Does she have a car?
Does it snow in winter?

 Did is the past form of both do and does

Did he call you?
Did you enjoy the game?

b. Expressing negatives

 The negative form of do is do not. The contracted form of do not is don’t.

I do not like you.
I don’t like you.

 The negative form of does is does not. The contracted form of does not is doesn’t.
He does not like you.
He doesn’t like you.

 The negative form of did is did not. The contracted form of did not is didn’t.
I did not know you were coming.
I didn’t know you were coming.

c. Emphasizing an idea
● He always does pay bills on time.
● The boys in class do take their responsibilities seriously.
● She did recite her poem so well.

d. Forming wh-questions
● Who do you think will win the game?
● Why does she go to the canteen with you?
● When did you find out the truth?
●
2. Do, Does and Did also function as action verbs.
● Pete always does his assignment before bed time
● Volunteers do a lot of work around the town during disasters.
● Ana did a great job on his history report for school.

USE OF HAS, HAVE, HAD

Has, Have and Had are used to make perfect tense. I, you, we or third person plural always come
with “have” and third person singular come with has. In the past tense (first, second, and third person) in
both number singular and plural come with had.

Has and have can be used to show possession and are important in making the perfect tense. Had
is the past tense of both has and have.

 Have. Have is used with some pronouns and plural nouns.

I have a great English teacher.
 We have a meeting at 12.
Teachers have a difficult job.

 Has. Has is used with the thurd person singular.

She has a great personality.
The washing machine has a leak in it.
It has a hole near the door
He has a new haircut.

 Had.
I had a sumptuous dinner last night
Ana had her high school diploma at 16
My father had high hopes with my brother.

 'have' and 'has' in questions

Have you been to Australia?
Has Andrew left yet?
Who has my pen?
Has anyone seen my mobile phone?

 'have got' and 'have' Both 'have got' and 'have' mean the same thing. There is no
difference.
I have got an i-phone. = I have an i-phone.
You have got a message. = You have a message.
She has got no time to sleep. = She has no time to sleep.

 'have' and 'has' verb tenses

'have/has'' is an important verb in making the 'perfect tense':

 Present Perfect
She has lived here for a long time.
We have seen this TV show before.
I have cut my finger.

 Past Perfect
I had already decided not to go before he asked me.
They had finished the race before it started raining.
She had already left when he arrived.
 LESSON VI. CORRECTING SENTENCE ERRORS

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Differentiate sentence fragment, run-on sentences and comma splice, and
analyze its
effect to sentence and paragraph constructions;
2. Decipher misplaced and dangling modifiers in sentence and paragraph
construction;
3. Critic redundancy and wordiness in sentence and paragraph constructions; and
4. Check properly the consistency of tenses of verbs in sentence and paragraph

Construction.

LESSON PROPER
The most common errors in sentence grammar result from the misuse of clauses.
This can mean treating an incomplete or dependent clause as if it were an independent clause or
combining clauses incorrectly. The most common types of sentence construction errors are
fragments, run-on sentences, and comma splices.

FRAGMENT
A fragment is a phrase or a subordinate or dependent clause. It is a common error
in which an incomplete sentence is presented as if it was complete. Some of the most common
reasons, along with examples and suggested corrections, are as follows:

1. It’s just a phrase, probably one that should have been part of the previous sentence.
Examples: Probably due to the weather.
In some situations, such as operas and city riots.
However, not nearly as many as you might think.
*These fragments can often be fixed by simply attaching them with commas to the
complete sentences that they refer to.
 2. It’s only a dependent clause, which cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Examples: Because kale is healthy.
Whether you agree or not.
If my car got stolen.
*These fragments can often be fixed by simply using the rules above for Combining
Clauses to attach them to the sentences they refer to.

3. It has an incorrect or incomplete verb.

Examples: He going to school later today.
They seen that movie.
The author, after many years and many completed novels, finally his
greatest book yet.
*Sometimes these fragments merely need the addition of the accidentally omitted verb
(as with the third example). But other times these are caused by a deeper weakness in verb
conjugation (as with the first two examples), which requires time dedicated to careful reading of
good prose.

4. It’s missing a grammatical subject.

Examples: In the movie “The Godfather,” says to keep your enemies closer than your
friends.
After class let out, walked right up to me and laughed.
*These fragments are often caused by accidental lapses in focus when drafting and can
therefore be fixed by merely adding the intended subject.

RUN-ON SENTENCE
A run-on sentence is a common error in which two independent clauses are
combined without any punctuation.
Examples of run-on sentences:
I am afraid of that dog it looks scary.
It barked I ran.
I have an idea let’s order pizza.
 Pizza is good tacos are better.
*Note that this error has nothing to do with the length of the sentence. There is no
grammatical rule against long sentences. Instead, a run-on sentence is an error of combining
complete ideas incorrectly, so a run-on sentence could be any length, as could a correct sentence.

The ways to fix run-on sentences described in the section Clauses and Combining
Clauses.
Examples of corrected sentences:
I am afraid of that dog; it looks scary.
It barked, and I ran.
I have an idea; let’s order pizza.
Pizza is good, but tacos are better.

COMMA SPLICES
A comma splice is a common error in which two independent clauses are
combined by a comma only, which means that the comma is not followed by one of the
necessary coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, & so).
Examples of comma splices:
I don’t like studying grammar, it’s too hard.
I ran, the dog chased me.
The pizza fell on the floor, the carpet is ruined.
*Note that using only a comma is correct when combining some dependent clauses with
independent clauses.
Examples of correct sentences:
Because I don’t have to work today, I’m going to play retro video
games.
The newer games make me dizzy, which is why I don’t play them.

MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word,
phrase, or clause. Sometimes writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to strange and
unintentionally humorous sentences. The two common types of modifier errors are called
misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. If either of these errors occurs, readers can no
longer read smoothly. Instead, they become stumped trying to figure out what the writer meant to
say.
A writer’s goal must always be to communicate clearly and to avoid distracting
the reader with strange sentences or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is that
these errors can be easily overcome.

MISPLACED MODIFIER
A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it
modifies. Misplaced modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally
humorous.
Examples: Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.
Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.
*Notice in the incorrect sentence it sounds as if her head was too large! Of course, the
writer is referring to the helmet, not to the person’s head. The corrected version of the sentence
clarifies the writer’s meaning.
Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.
Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.
*In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That’s because the
modifier is too far from the word it modifies, which is kitten.
Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.
Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.
*The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the
writer means is that the patient has stomach pains.

Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used
incorrectly because writers often stick them in the wrong place.
Example: Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.
Repaired: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.
*How do you almost find something? Either you find it, or you do not. The repaired
sentence is much clearer
 DANGLING MODIFIER
A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has
been left out of the sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify,
the modifier is said to dangle.
Examples: Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.
Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by
rapidly.
*In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left
wondering who is riding in the sports car. The writer must tell the reader!
Incorrect: New-boot goofing in the parking lot, the genuine ostrich
leather shimmered like snow.
Correct: As Lieutenant Dangle was new-boot goofing in the parking lot,
the genuine ostrich leather shimmered like snow.
Correct: The genuine ostrich leather shimmered like snow as Lieutenant
Dangle was new-boot goofing in the parking lot,
*In the incorrect sentence new-boot goofing is dangling. Who is new-boot goofing?
Lieutenant Dangle. Note that there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be
corrected.
Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.
Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard
should join our team.
*In the incorrect sentence, to win the spelling bee is dangling. Who wants to win the
spelling bee? We do!

The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier:
1. Look for an -ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying
phrase:
Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
(Painting is the -ing modifier.)
2. Underline the first noun that follows it:
Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
 3. Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they do not, it is very likely
you
have a dangling modifier.
4. After identifying the dangling modifier, rewrite the sentence.
Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen.

PARALLELISM
Parallelism is the use of similar structure in related words, clauses, or phrases. It
creates a sense of rhythm and balance within a sentence. As readers, we often correct faulty
parallelism—a lack of parallel structure—intuitively because an unbalanced sentence sounds
awkward and poorly constructed.
Examples of faulty parallelism: - Kelly had to iron, do the washing, and shopping before
her parents arrived.
- Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and to
have good eyesight.
- Faulty parallelism: Ali prefers jeans to wearing a suit.
All of these sentences contain faulty parallelism. In the first example, three
different verb forms are used. In the second and third examples, the writer begins each sentence
by using a noun (coordination, jeans), but ends with a phrase (to have good eyesight, wearing a
suit). Now read the same three sentences that have correct parallelism.
Note that the goal in parallelism is not to use the one right type of construction
(which type is your choice), but instead to make every item use the same construction.
Correct parallelism: - Kelly had to do the ironing, washing, and shopping before her
parents arrived.
- Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and good eyesight.
- Ali prefers wearing jeans to wearing a suit.
When these sentences are written using a parallel structure, they sound more
aesthetically pleasing because they are balanced. Repetition of grammatical construction also
minimizes the amount of work the reader must do to decode the sentence. This enables the reader
to focus on the main idea in the sentence and not on how the sentence is put together.
A simple way to check for parallelism in your writing is to make sure you have
paired nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, and
so on. Underline each element in a sentence and check that the corresponding element uses the
same grammatical form.

Creating Parallelism Using Coordinating Conjunctions

When you connect two clauses using a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so), make sure that the same grammatical structure is used on each side of the
conjunction. Take a look at the following example:
Faulty parallelism: When I walk the dog, I like to listen to music and talking to friends
on the phone.
Correct parallelism: When I walk the dog, I like listening to music and talking to
friends on the phone.
*The first sentence uses two different verb forms (to listen, talking). In the second
sentence, the grammatical construction on each side of the coordinating conjunction (and) is the
same, creating a parallel sentence.
The same technique should be used for joining items or lists in a series:
Faulty parallelism: This committee needs to decide whether the company should reduce
its workforce, cut its benefits, or lowering workers’ wages.
Correct parallelism: This committee needs to decide whether the company should reduce
its workforce, cut its benefits, or lower workers’ wages.
*The first sentence contains two items that use the same verb construction (reduce, cut)
and a third item that uses a different verb form (lowering). The second sentence uses the same
verb construction in all three items, creating a parallel structure.

Creating Parallelism Using Than or As

When you are making a comparison, the two items being compared should have a
parallel structure. Comparing two items without using parallel structure can lead to confusion
about what is being compared. Comparisons frequently use the words than or as, and the items
on each side of these comparison words should be parallel. Take a look at the following
example:
Faulty parallelism: Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than a pool.
Correct parallelism: Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than swimming in a pool.
*In the first sentence, the elements before the comparison word (than) are not equal to the
elements after the comparison word. It appears that the writer is comparing an action
(swimming) with a noun (a pool). In the second sentence, the writer uses the same grammatical
construction to create a parallel structure. This clarifies that an action is being compared with
another action.
To correct some instances of faulty parallelism, it may be necessary to add or
delete words in a sentence.
Faulty parallelism: A brisk walk is as beneficial to your health as going for a run.
Correct parallelism: Going for a brisk walk is as beneficial to your health as going for a
run.
*In this example, it is necessary to add the verb phrase going for to the sentence in order
to clarify that the act of walking is being compared to the act of running.

Creating Parallelism Using Correlative Conjunctions

A correlative conjunction is a paired conjunction that connects two equal parts of
a sentence and shows the relationship between them. Common correlative conjunctions include
the following:

 either…or

 not only…but also

 neither…nor

 whether…or

 rather…than

 both…and
Correlative conjunctions should follow the same grammatical structure to create a
parallel sentence. Take a look at the following example:
Faulty parallelism: We can neither wait for something to happen nor can we take evasive
action.
Correct parallelism: We can neither wait for something to happen nor take evasive
action.
*When using a correlative conjunction, the words, phrases, or clauses following each part
should be parallel. In the first sentence, the construction of the second part of the sentence does
not match the construction of the first part. In the second sentence, omitting needless words and
matching verb constructions create a parallel structure.
Sometimes, rearranging a sentence corrects faulty parallelism.
Faulty parallelism: It was both a long movie and poorly written.
 Correct parallelism: The movie was both long and poorly written.

LESSON VII: TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR

Transformational grammar (TG) is a linguistic theory developed by Noam Chomsky that

focuses on the relationships between different sentence structures through transformational rules.
This theory distinguishes between deep structures, which represent the core meaning of
sentences, and surface structures, which are the forms those meanings take in language.

Key Concepts

1. Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure:

 The deep structure conveys the fundamental meaning of a sentence, while

the surface structure is how that meaning is expressed linguistically. For
example:

 Deep Structure: "The cat chased the mouse."

 Surface Structure 1: "The mouse was chased by the cat."

 Surface Structure 2: "Did the cat chase the mouse?"

2. Transformations:

 Transformations are rules that change deep structures into surface structures.
Common transformations include:

 Passive Transformation:

 Active: "The dog bit the man."

 Passive: "The man was bitten by the dog."

 Interrogative Transformation:

 Statement: "She enjoys playing tennis."

 Question: "Does she enjoy playing tennis?"

3. Kernel Sentences:

 These are basic sentences from which more complex forms can be derived. For
instance:

 Kernel: "John loves Mary."

 Derived: "Does John love Mary?" (interrogative transformation)

Examples of Transformational Grammar

 Active to Passive:

 Active: "The teacher explains the lesson."

 Passive: "The lesson is explained by the teacher."

 Question Formation:

 Statement: "They will attend the meeting."

 Question: "Will they attend the meeting?"

 Negation:

 Affirmative: "She likes chocolate."

 Negative: "She does not like chocolate."

 Complex Sentences:

 Simple: "I read the book."

 Complex: "I read the book that you recommended."

LESSON VIII. IMPROVING LISTENING COMPREHENSION

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Apply the principles of listening in different learning activities;

2. Use listening springboards to apply the concepts and principles in listening;

3. Use different listening springboards to apply the principles of listening; and

4. Present students’ output based on the listening instruments for critiquing.

LESSON PROPER

What is Listening?

 Listening is the active process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding
to spoken and/or nonverbal messages.

 It involves not just hearing the words being said, but also understanding the context,
emotions, and intentions behind those words. Effective listening requires focus, attention,
and engagement, enabling individuals to interpret and respond appropriately to the
communication of others (Johnson, 2014).
Types of Listening

1. Appreciative Listening. Listening for pleasure, entertainment or enjoyment. It

requires a receptive attitude and an open and relaxed mind.

● Examples: listening to music, conversations with friends, entertaining

speeches, or television sitcoms.

2. Empathic Listening. Listening to provide emotional support. It serves a therapeutic

function, where the listener aims to understand the speaker's plight and feelings.

● Examples: parents listening to their children, supervisors listening to

employees with personal problems, or volunteers helping troubled callers on a
telephone hotline.

3. Comprehensive Listening. Listening to derive information, facts, ideas and

principles. It requires a considerable degree of concentration to ensure accuracy of
perception.

● Examples: listening to lectures in class or following directions.

 4. Critical Listening. Listening to make an evaluation, form an intellectual judgment,
criticize, or evaluate the ideas of others. It involves both appreciative and analytical
listening.

● Examples: listening to a political campaign speech or a real estate sales

pitch to make judgments based on the evidence.

●
Principles of Effective Listening

The principles of effective listening are grounded in the understanding that listening is an
active process that requires focused attention, mental engagement, and a willingness to
understand the speaker's message (Brownell, 2016). These principles include:

1. Focusing attention on the speaker. Maintaining eye contact, avoiding distractions,

and actively engaging with the speaker's message.

2. Avoiding distractions and mental blocks. Recognizing and overcoming internal and
external distractions, such as preconceptions, biases, and environmental factors.

3. Keeping an open mind and avoiding premature judgment. Suspending judgment

until the speaker has finished and the message has been fully understood.

4. Providing feedback and asking clarifying questions. Demonstrating understanding

through verbal and nonverbal cues, and seeking clarification when needed.

5. Taking notes and summarizing key points. Capturing the essence of the message
and organizing it in a way that facilitates comprehension and retention.

Levels of Listening

In addition to the principles of effective listening, understanding the different levels of

listening can help students identify areas for improvement and develop targeted strategies to
enhance their skills. The levels of listening include:
 1. Hearing. The physical process of sound waves entering the ear and being
processed by the auditory system.

Example: Hearing the sound of a teacher's voice during a lecture, without necessarily
comprehending the meaning of the words.

2. Understanding. Comprehending the literal meaning of the words and phrases

used by the speaker.

Example: Comprehending the definition of a term or the factual information provided by

a speaker.

3. Interpreting. Analyzing the speaker's intended meaning, context, and subtext to

gain a deeper understanding of the message.

Example: Analyzing the speaker's intended meaning, tone, and context to gain a deeper
understanding of the message, such as recognizing the speaker's underlying emotions or the
implications of their statements.

4. Evaluating. Critically assessing the speaker's message, arguments, and evidence

to form a judgment or opinion.

Example: Critically assessing the speaker's arguments, evidence, and overall message to
form a judgment or opinion about the content, such as determining the validity of the speaker's
claims or the strength of their reasoning.

5. Responding. Providing an appropriate verbal or nonverbal response that

demonstrates understanding and engagement with the speaker's message.

Example: Providing a verbal or nonverbal response that demonstrates understanding and

engagement with the speaker's message, such as asking a clarifying question, summarizing the
key points, or offering a thoughtful comment.

Listening to Lecture or Speaking Engagement

Strategies for Improving Listening Comprehension in Lectures and Speaking

Engagement
 Effective listening is an essential skill for academic and professional success, as it
enables individuals to fully comprehend and engage with the presented information. However,
maintaining focus and understanding during extended lectures or speaking engagements can be
challenging. To overcome these obstacles and enhance listening comprehension, several
strategies can be employed:

1. Active Listening

● Focus completely on the speaker, reduce distractions, and engage with the content. This
leads to better understanding and retention of information.

2. Note-Taking and Summarizing

● Write down key points during lectures to help remember and understand the material.
Reviewing your notes afterward reinforces learning.

3. Vocabulary and Background Knowledge

● A strong vocabulary and knowledge about the topic improve comprehension. Reviewing
important terms before lectures can help.

4. Asking Clarifying Questions

● Don't hesitate to ask questions if something is unclear. This shows you are engaged and
helps fill in any gaps in your understanding.

5. Practicing Regularly

● Like any skill, listening improves with practice. Attend various lectures or listen to
recordings to enhance your ability to process information effectively.

Strategies for Improving Listening Comprehension through watching TV programs

and educational videos
 Improving listening comprehension through watching TV programs and educational
videos can be an effective strategy for all individuals. Here’s a structured approach based on
various insights and recommendations.

Benefits of Watching TV and Educational Videos

1. Engagement and Interest: Engaging content, such as TV shows and educational videos,
can make learning enjoyable. This emotional connection enhances retention and
comprehension, as viewers are more likely to focus on the story rather than just the
language.

2. Variety of Content. The diversity of genres available—from dramas to documentaries—

allows individuals to choose material that interests them, facilitating better
comprehension. Shorter episodes are often more digestible than full-length films, making
it easier to maintain attention and motivation.

3. Real-Life Language Exposure. TV shows often feature natural speech patterns, slang,
and cultural references that are vital for understanding everyday conversations. This
exposure helps viewers become accustomed to different accents and speaking speeds,
which are crucial for developing native-like listening skills.

Strategies for Effective Learning

1. Use of Subtitles. Beginners may benefit from watching with subtitles in their native
language, then transitioning to subtitles in the target language, and eventually watching
without any subtitles.

2. Active Listening Techniques:

  Pause and Rewind. Regularly pausing to replay difficult sections can help clarify
misunderstandings.

 Note-taking: Writing down new vocabulary or phrases during viewing sessions

can reinforce learning.

3. Contextual Learning: Understanding the context of conversations in shows can aid

comprehension. Viewers should focus on the overall plot and character interactions to
grasp the meaning, even if they do not understand every word.

4. Supplementary Resources: Incorporating other forms of media, such as TED Talks,

podcasts, and documentaries, can provide additional listening practice. These resources
often present information in a clear and structured manner, which can be beneficial for
comprehension.
Recommended Content

● TV Shows for Listening Practice

 Comedies. Friends, Fleabag—these often use everyday language and humor.

 Dramas. The Crown, The Good Doctor—these can provide exposure to more complex
dialogues and vocabulary.

 Educational Programs. Documentaries and TED Talks—these are structured and often
articulate, making them great for focused listening practice.

● Educational Videos

 YouTube Channels. Channels focused on language learning or specific subjects can

provide clear explanations and contextual learning opportunities.

 Online Courses. Platforms offering courses often include video content specifically
designed to enhance comprehension skills.