UNITED KINGDOM
Political Tradition and Constitutional Development
The United Kingdom (UK) is known for having one of the oldest and most stable political
systems in the world. Unlike many countries, the UK does not have a single written
constitution. Instead, its political system is based on a combination of historical documents,
traditions, legal statutes, and common law. This is often called an "unwritten constitution"—
though in reality, the rules are written down in many different places.
Historical Background
The UK’s political system evolved over many centuries. One of the earliest and most important
developments was the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This document was a major step
in limiting the power of the monarch and recognizing that even the king had to follow the law.
Over time, power shifted from the monarchy to Parliament. The Glorious Revolution of 1688
was a key moment in this process. It resulted in the removal of King James II and the arrival
of William and Mary as co-monarchs. Importantly, they accepted the Bill of Rights (1689),
which set limits on the powers of the monarchy and laid the foundation for a constitutional
monarchy.
Another important step was the Act of Settlement (1701), which helped ensure that Parliament,
not the monarch, had control over the succession to the throne. Then, over the 18th and 19th
centuries, the UK gradually developed a parliamentary democracy. More and more people
were allowed to vote through reforms like the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884. These
acts expanded the electorate (elite>working class>women>all adults) and gave more power to
the House of Commons, the lower house of Parliament.
Evolution of the Constitution
The UK’s constitution is not found in one single document. Instead, it is made up of several
different sources:
1. Statutory law – These are laws passed by Parliament, such as the Human Rights Act
(1998) and the Parliament Acts (1911 and 1949).
2. Common law – These are legal principles developed by judges through court decisions
over centuries.
3. Constitutional conventions – These are long-standing practices that are followed even
though they are not written in law. For example, it is a convention that the Prime
Minister is the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons.
4. Works of authority – Some scholars, such as Walter Bagehot, have written important
explanations of how the UK system works. While not legally binding, these texts are
respected.
The Role of Parliament and the Monarchy
Today, the UK is a constitutional monarchy. The monarch (currently King Charles III) is the
head of state, but their role is largely symbolic. Real political power lies with Parliament and
the Prime Minister. Parliament is made up of two houses: the House of Commons, which is
elected by the people, and the House of Lords, which is mostly appointed.
The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two. It passes laws, approves the
government’s budget, and can remove the Prime Minister through a vote of no confidence. The
House of Lords acts as a revising chamber, reviewing laws and suggesting changes.
The Prime Minister is the head of government and is usually the leader of the political party
with the most seats in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister chooses ministers and leads
the executive branch.
Recent Changes and Reforms
In recent decades, the UK has gone through several important constitutional changes:
Devolution: Powers have been transferred from the UK Parliament to regional
governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Each now has its own parliament
or assembly with some control over local matters like education and health.
House of Lords reform: Many hereditary peers (those who inherited their titles) have lost
their seats, and more attention is being given to making the Lords more democratic and
representative.
Human Rights Act (1998): This brought the European Convention on Human Rights into
UK law, allowing courts to hear human rights cases.
Judicial independence: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom was created in
2009 to take over the judicial functions that used to be handled by the House of Lords. This
strengthened the separation of powers.
The Power of the Prime Minister
1. Head of Government and Political Leader
The Prime Minister is the leader of the political party (or coalition) that has the most seats in
the House of Commons, which is the main legislative body in the UK. Because of this position,
the PM has a strong base of support in Parliament and can usually pass laws with relative ease.
The PM is responsible for forming a government, which includes selecting cabinet ministers—
the heads of various government departments like health, education, and defense. These
ministers are usually members of Parliament and are loyal to the PM, helping to make the
government function smoothly.
2. Control Over the Cabinet
One of the PM's biggest powers is their control over the cabinet. The PM chooses who gets to
be in the cabinet and can remove ministers who underperform or disagree too much. This gives
the PM control over the top decision-makers in the country.
Although the UK system values "collective cabinet responsibility"—meaning the whole
cabinet must publicly support decisions—the Prime Minister has the most influence over what
the cabinet decides. If cabinet ministers strongly disagree with the PM, they often resign, which
shows how powerful the PM's position is.
3. Agenda Setting
The PM sets the policy agenda for the government. This means they help decide what issues
the government will focus on and what laws will be introduced in Parliament. Because the
Prime Minister leads the majority party, it's usually easy for them to get their policies approved
by the House of Commons.
The PM also plays a key role in managing crises, shaping foreign policy, and responding to
events like economic downturns or national security threats.
4. Parliamentary Dominance
Although the UK is a parliamentary democracy, in practice, the Prime Minister can be
extremely powerful—especially when their party has a strong majority in the House of
Commons. With a loyal majority, the PM can pass laws, avoid defeat in key votes, and survive
any challenges to their leadership.
However, if the PM’s party loses popularity or becomes divided, the Prime Minister’s position
can become weaker. In such cases, even members of their own party can force the PM to resign,
as happened with former Prime Ministers like Margaret Thatcher and Boris Johnson.
5. Patronage Power
The Prime Minister has strong patronage powers, meaning they can appoint people to important
jobs. These include not only ministers, but also civil service positions, ambassadors, heads of
public agencies, and members of the House of Lords. This allows the PM to reward loyal
supporters and shape the long-term direction of the government.
6. International Role
The PM represents the UK on the global stage. They attend major international meetings like
the G7, NATO, and UN gatherings, and negotiate with leaders of other countries. Though the
monarch is technically the head of state, in practice, it is the PM who makes and executes most
foreign policy decisions.
7. Constraints on PM’s Power
Parliament, especially the House of Commons, which can challenge or reject policies.
Public opinion, which can influence the PM’s popularity and chances of re-election.
The media, which closely scrutinizes the PM’s actions.
The party, especially if there are internal disagreements or leadership challenges.
Society and Economic Nature
British Society
1. Class Identity
Class remains one of the most important social divisions in the UK. Historically, British society
was sharply divided into three main classes:
The upper class: the aristocracy and royalty, often owning land and having titles.
The middle class: professionals, business owners, and office workers.
The working class: manual laborers and factory workers.
Even today, class identity still shapes people’s lives in terms of education, career
opportunities, and political views. For example, middle and upper-class families are more
likely to send their children to private schools and elite universities like Oxford and Cambridge.
While traditional class lines have softened, differences in income, lifestyle, and even accent
still reflect a person’s background. People in the UK are often very aware of these subtle class
signals.
2. Ethnic and National Identity
The UK is made up of four nations—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—
each with its own strong national identity. While England is the largest and most dominant,
the others have distinct cultures, languages, and political preferences.
Over time, there has been a rise in regional nationalism, especially in Scotland, where many
people have pushed for independence. The Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly (now
called the Senedd) were created through devolution, giving these regions more political
control.
In addition to regional identity, the UK has become ethnically diverse, especially in major
cities like London, Birmingham, and Manchester. Immigration from former colonies, such as
India, Pakistan, the Caribbean, and Africa, began after World War II. Today, the UK is home
to people from many backgrounds and religions.
While many immigrants have contributed positively to the country’s economy and culture,
issues like integration, multiculturalism, and racism have also been sources of tension and
debate. In recent years, immigration became a major political issue, influencing events like the
Brexit referendum in 2016.
3. Ideology and Political Culture
British political culture has been shaped by values like tolerance, democracy, and rule of law.
Most people respect the political system and accept that power should be transferred peacefully
through elections.
At the same time, people in the UK tend to be pragmatic—they care more about practical
solutions than strict ideology. The British also tend to value tradition—many still support the
monarchy, even if it has little real power.
The UK Economy
1. From Industrial Power to Service Economy
In the 19th century, Britain led the Industrial Revolution and became the world’s richest and
most powerful country. Cities like Manchester, Birmingham, and Glasgow were major centers
for coal, steel, and textiles.
However, by the mid-20th century, the UK faced economic decline. Industries became
outdated, and competition from other countries increased. This led to factory closures and high
unemployment in traditional working-class areas.
In recent decades, the UK has shifted to a service-based economy. Today, most jobs are in
sectors like finance, education, healthcare, and information technology. London is one of
the world’s leading financial centers, home to banks, insurance companies, and stock
exchanges.
2. Privatization and Economic Reform
In the 1980s, under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, the UK underwent major economic
reforms. Many state-owned industries—such as British Airways, British Telecom, and the
coal mines—were privatized, meaning they were sold to private companies. The government
also reduced the power of labor unions and promoted free-market policies.
These changes boosted business and investment, but they also widened the gap between rich
and poor. Some regions became wealthier, while others were left behind.
3. Economic Inequality
The UK has relatively high economic inequality compared to other advanced democracies.
Some people enjoy great wealth and opportunity, especially in parts of southern England, while
others—particularly in former industrial areas—face poverty and unemployment.
Government programs like the National Health Service (NHS) and public education help
reduce some of this inequality, but regional and class-based differences remain a challenge.
4. Global Economy and Brexit
The UK has always been a global economic power due to its trade, banking system, and
colonial history. It was a member of the European Union (EU) for over 40 years. However,
many citizens believed EU membership limited the UK’s independence—especially when it
came to immigration and economic rules.
In 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU (Brexit). This decision has had major impacts on trade,
jobs, and the movement of people. The full economic effects of Brexit are still unfolding, but
it has created both uncertainty and opportunities for the UK to re-define its global role.
The Party and Electoral System
1. The Party System in the UK
The United Kingdom operates a multi-party system, but for most of its democratic history, it
has been dominated by two major parties—the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. These
two parties have traditionally alternated in government and are the central players in shaping
national policy. The structure of the British electoral system, along with historical
developments, has helped sustain this two-party dominance, although other parties have gained
significance in recent years.
a. Conservative Party (Tories)
The Conservative Party, often called the Tories, is one of the oldest political parties in the
world. It traditionally represents the interests of business owners, the wealthy, and those who
believe in free-market economics and limited government intervention. The party has
supported lower taxes, privatization of public services, and strong national defense. Socially,
it is associated with values like law and order and preserving traditional British institutions,
such as the monarchy. The Conservatives have held power many times in British history and
produced well-known leaders like Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, David Cameron,
Theresa May, Boris Johnson, and Rishi Sunak. Under their leadership, especially during
Thatcher’s time, the party championed neoliberal reforms such as deregulation and the
weakening of trade unions.
b. Labour Party
The Labour Party was founded in the early 20th century, rooted in the labor union movement
and socialist organizations. Its purpose was to represent the working-class population and
challenge the political dominance of the Conservatives. Over time, Labour has developed into
a center-left party, supporting policies like public ownership of key industries (especially in its
early years), expanded welfare programs, and strong government support for education, health
care, and housing. During the time of Tony Blair in the late 1990s and early 2000s, the party
adopted more centrist policies under the label of “New Labour,” balancing social welfare with
market-based economics. Labour remains the primary alternative to the Conservatives and has
historically drawn support from industrial regions and urban working-class communities.
c. Liberal Democrats
The Liberal Democrats are a centrist party that emerged in 1988 from a merger of the Liberal
Party and the Social Democratic Party. The party promotes civil liberties, environmental
sustainability, electoral reform, and greater investment in public services like education and
healthcare. It generally attracts middle-class and university-educated voters who are
dissatisfied with both major parties. Although the Liberal Democrats have rarely held power
on their own, they played a critical role in national politics by forming a coalition government
with the Conservatives from 2010 to 2015. During this period, they held significant ministerial
positions but suffered political setbacks afterward due to controversial decisions, such as
supporting tuition fee increases.
d. Other Parties
Several smaller and regional parties play important roles, especially within the devolved
governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Scottish National Party (SNP) is
the dominant party in Scotland and advocates for Scottish independence from the United
Kingdom. It has held a majority in the Scottish Parliament and governs the region’s domestic
affairs. Plaid Cymru is a Welsh nationalist party pushing for greater autonomy and the
promotion of the Welsh language and culture. In Northern Ireland, parties like the Democratic
Unionist Party (DUP), which supports continued union with the UK, and Sinn Féin, which
favors unification with the Republic of Ireland, dominate regional politics. Other notable
parties include the Green Party, which focuses on environmental issues, and UKIP (UK
Independence Party), which played a major role in pushing for Brexit. Though these smaller
parties often struggle under the national electoral system, they are influential in regional and
issue-based politics.
2. The Electoral System in the UK
The United Kingdom primarily uses the First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system for general
elections. This system has had a major influence on the shape of the party system and the
distribution of power in Parliament. It promotes simplicity and produces clear winners, but has
also been criticized for being unfair to smaller parties and creating disproportional results.
How FPTP Works
Under the FPTP system, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, and each one elects one
Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons. Voters choose a single candidate, and
the candidate who gets the most votes in a constituency wins the seat. It is not necessary for
the winner to get more than 50% of the vote; a simple plurality is enough. This method of
voting means that the party with the most MPs usually forms the government, and if a party
secures more than half the seats, it can govern alone. If no party wins a majority, a coalition or
minority government is formed.
Features of FPTP
FPTP is known for being a straightforward and efficient voting system. It allows for quick
counting and clear outcomes, which adds to political stability. It often results in majority
governments, as the winning party can secure a majority of seats even without a majority of
the total vote. This strengthens executive authority and helps the government pass legislation
without much obstruction. However, this system also creates a strong advantage for larger,
nationwide parties and makes it very difficult for smaller or regional parties to gain fair
representation in Parliament unless their support is highly concentrated in specific areas.
Criticism of FPTP
One major criticism of the FPTP system is that it produces many "wasted votes"—votes for
candidates who do not win in a constituency are essentially discarded. This discourages smaller
parties from competing in areas where they are unlikely to win. It also leads to distorted
outcomes, where a party can win a majority of seats without a majority of votes nationwide.
For instance, a party winning many close races can end up with more seats than a party that
received more overall votes but won fewer constituencies. Many argue that this undermines
democratic fairness and discourages voter participation, particularly for supporters of smaller
parties who feel their votes do not matter.
Recent Electoral Trends
Although the two main parties still dominate, recent elections have shown growing public
support for smaller parties, especially in regional contexts. The 2010 general election resulted
in a “hung Parliament,” where no party won a clear majority. As a result, the Conservatives
formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. This was a rare occurrence in
British politics and showed that under certain conditions, the FPTP system can lead to power-
sharing arrangements. The rise of the SNP in Scotland and the changing political attitudes
following Brexit have also increased the influence of parties outside the traditional two-party
system.
Other Elections and Voting Systems
While FPTP is used for national parliamentary elections, the UK employs different electoral
systems for local and devolved government elections. For example, the Scottish Parliament,
Welsh Senedd, and Northern Ireland Assembly use various forms of proportional
representation. These systems are designed to reflect the diverse political opinions in the
regions more accurately. Local mayoral elections may use supplementary vote systems, and
European Parliament elections (when the UK was an EU member) also used proportional
systems. These different electoral methods allow smaller and regional parties to gain more
representation at the local or regional level, even though they struggle under the national FPTP
system.
0M NBV0043BNCXBased on the information from Cases in Comparative Politics (Third
Edition), the United Kingdom is classified as a unitary system, not a federal one. However,
the reality is more complex due to recent constitutional changes, particularly devolution.
Here's a detailed explanation in paragraph form:
Unitary System
The United Kingdom is officially a unitary state, which means that all constitutional power is
legally held by the central government in London. In a unitary system, unlike in a federal
system, there is no formal division of sovereignty between different levels of government.
Instead, the national government may choose to delegate certain powers to lower levels, but it
can also take them back at any time. Historically, this has been the case in the UK, where
Parliament has had supreme legal authority over the entire territory of the country, including
its four constituent nations—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
In contrast, a federal system, such as those found in the United States, Germany, or India, has
a constitutional division of powers between the central government and regional governments.
In federal systems, each level of government is protected by the constitution and operates with
a degree of autonomy that the central government cannot easily override. In the UK, this kind
of protected autonomy does not exist in the same way, which is why it is not considered a true
federal system.
However, over the past few decades, the UK has moved in a more decentralized direction,
mainly through a process known as devolution. Devolution refers to the transfer of certain
legislative and administrative powers from the central government to regional governments in
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These devolved governments now control important
areas such as education, health care, housing, and transportation within their respective regions.
Scotland, in particular, has the most extensive devolution, with its own parliament and
significant authority over domestic policies.
Despite these changes, it is important to note that the UK Parliament in Westminster remains
sovereign. This means that, legally, it can still change or reverse devolution arrangements,
even though doing so might be politically unpopular or destabilizing. For example, Parliament
could abolish the Scottish Parliament or take back devolved powers through an ordinary act of
legislation. This is a key feature that distinguishes the UK from a federal country, where the
existence and powers of regional governments are constitutionally protected and cannot be
taken away by the national government alone.
Moreover, England, the largest and most populous part of the UK, does not have a devolved
government of its own. Instead, it is directly governed by the UK Parliament. This creates an
asymmetrical devolution, meaning that not all parts of the country have the same powers or
political arrangements. While Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have their own
legislatures and executives, England does not, reinforcing the unitary character of the UK state.
In conclusion, while the United Kingdom has taken important steps toward decentralization
through devolution, it remains a unitary state in constitutional terms. The powers held by
devolved governments are not protected by a written constitution and can be changed or taken
away by the central Parliament. This makes the UK different from federal systems, even though
in practice, the devolved regions now enjoy considerable autonomy. The country thus
represents a unique case: a unitary system with federal-like features that have emerged through
political negotiation and reform rather than through a formal constitutional transformation.
Optional
The British Parliament is one of the oldest democratic institutions in the world. Over the
centuries, it has developed a unique character by combining elements of both tradition and
modern change. On one hand, it has deep roots in history, with customs and structures that go
back hundreds of years. On the other hand, it has also adapted to new ideas, laws, and social
changes to meet the needs of modern society.
When we say the Parliament is an “amalgamation of progressive and conservative forces,” we
mean that it brings together two different tendencies: progressive forces, which support
change and reform, and conservative forces, which aim to protect traditions and maintain
stability. These two sides are not always in conflict; in fact, they often work together to shape
the British political system in a balanced way.
Historical Roots (Conservative Forces)
The British Parliament has a long and rich history, going back to the 13th century. It started as
a group of nobles and church leaders who gave advice to the king. Over time, it grew into a
more formal body, but many of its traditions from the past are still followed today. This strong
connection to history is one of the reasons why the Parliament is often seen as conservative.
One clear example of this is the monarchy. Even though the king or queen no longer has real
political power, the monarchy is still an important symbol of national unity and tradition. The
UK is a constitutional monarchy, which means the monarch’s role is mostly ceremonial, but
the institution itself is still respected and preserved.
Another important part of this traditional side is the House of Lords. Unlike the House of
Commons, whose members are elected by the people, many members of the House of Lords
are not elected. Some are appointed for life, and a few still have inherited titles. This makes the
House of Lords a symbol of old customs and aristocratic traditions.
The British Parliament also follows many ceremonial practices that reflect its deep roots in
the past. For example, the State Opening of Parliament includes the monarch giving a speech
from the throne, dressed in royal robes, with a formal and grand atmosphere. These events may
not affect law-making directly, but they show how much importance is still given to history
and symbolism.
Progressive Evolution
While the British Parliament has strong historical roots, it has also changed and evolved over
time to keep up with the needs of modern society. These progressive forces have helped make
the system more democratic, open, and inclusive.
One of the most important changes was the development of universal suffrage, which means
giving all adult citizens the right to vote. In the past, only a small group of wealthy men could
vote or be elected to Parliament. But over the 19th and 20th centuries, voting rights were
gradually expanded to include working-class men and eventually women. Today, every adult
in the UK has the right to vote, making Parliament much more representative of the people.
Another major step forward was the increasing power of the House of Commons, which is the
elected part of Parliament. Over time, the House of Lords lost many of its powers, especially
after the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949. These acts limited the Lords' ability to block laws
passed by the Commons. This shift gave more control to the elected representatives and
strengthened the democratic nature of Parliament.
The Parliament has also seen reforms to make it more modern and efficient. For example, there
have been efforts to make the House of Lords more balanced, by adding life peers with
experience in different fields like education, science, and social work. There have also been
discussions about turning the Lords into a fully or partly elected body, though these reforms
are still ongoing.
In recent years, Parliament has taken steps to become more diverse and inclusive. More
women, people from different ethnic backgrounds, and members of the LGBTQ+ community
are now being elected to the House of Commons. Parliament is also using digital tools and
technology to make its work more transparent and accessible to the public, especially during
times like the COVID-19 pandemic.
Party Politics and Ideological Mix
The British Parliament is also a place where different political ideologies and beliefs come
together. This mix of ideas plays a big role in balancing progressive and conservative forces.
The two main political parties in the UK are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party.
The Conservative Party, as the name suggests, tends to support traditional values, free market
policies, and gradual change. They often try to protect British traditions, national identity, and
stable governance. On the other hand, the Labour Party is generally more progressive. It
supports social reforms, equality, and stronger government involvement in public services like
healthcare and education.
There are also other parties, like the Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and
Green Party, each bringing their own ideas—often focusing on issues like environment,
devolution, civil rights, and local governance. These smaller parties also contribute to the
diversity of opinions in Parliament.
This variety of parties and beliefs means that the Parliament is not one-sided. Some members
push for reforms, like making the voting system fairer or protecting the environment. Others
focus on protecting traditional values, law and order, and national pride. The debates and
decisions in Parliament often reflect this push and pull between change and tradition.
Sometimes, these parties come together to pass important laws, especially when there’s a
shared goal. At other times, their differences create strong debates and disagreements. This
mix is actually healthy for a democracy because it ensures that multiple views are heard before
decisions are made.
Institutional Features
The structure and working style of the British Parliament also show a blend of conservative
and progressive elements. Its institutional features—like how it is organized and how it
functions—reflect both the respect for tradition and the need for change.
One major feature is that the UK Parliament is bicameral, which means it has two houses: the
House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is the lower house,
and its members are elected by the public. It represents modern democracy and the voice of the
people. In contrast, the House of Lords is mostly made up of appointed or hereditary members.
It represents continuity with the past and acts as a reviewing body. This setup itself is a mix of
progressive (Commons) and conservative (Lords) features.
Another important aspect is the way power is shared between the two houses. While the House
of Commons has more power—especially when it comes to making laws and controlling the
government—the House of Lords still plays an important role in checking and improving
legislation. This balance of power helps prevent any one part of government from becoming
too strong.
The British Parliament also operates within an unwritten constitution, based on traditions,
conventions, and legal documents like the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights. This allows for
flexibility and gradual change, which is a progressive feature. At the same time, the strong
respect for historical customs and parliamentary procedures shows the conservative side of the
system.
In addition, Parliament has adopted modern practices like broadcasting debates on TV and
online, holding public committee meetings, and using digital platforms to interact with citizens.
These steps help make the institution more transparent and accessible, which are signs of
progressive reform.
