Q.1: What are Markov chains?

 A Markov chain is a Markov process with discrete time and discrete state space.

 So, a Markov chain is a discrete sequence of states, each drawn from a discrete
state space (finite or not), and that follows the Markov property.

 Mathematically, we can denote a Markov chain by

Markov Chains properties

 Reducibility

 periodicity

 transience

 recurrence

Q.2 discuss about the theory of uncertainty based on fuzzy logic?

 Fuzzy Logic is a mathematical framework that deals with imprecise or uncertain information.

 It represents the shades of gray between absolute truth and absolute falsehood.

Here are some key points about fuzzy logic and its handling of uncertainty:
1. Membership Function:

o The fundamental concept in fuzzy logic is the membership function. It assigns a degree of
membership (between 0 and 1) to an input value within a certain set or category.
o For example, if we’re discussing temperature, a membership function might describe how
“warm” a day is based on the temperature value.
2. Fuzzy Sets and Rules:

o Fuzzy logic uses fuzzy rules (if-then statements) to express relationships between input
variables and output variables.
o These rules capture the uncertainty inherent in real-world situations.
 o The output of a fuzzy logic system is a fuzzy set, which includes membership degrees for each
possible output value.
3. Applications:

o Fuzzy logic finds applications in various fields:

 Control Systems: It’s used for controlling complex systems where precise rules are hard
to define.
 Image Processing: Handling uncertainty in image analysis.
 Natural Language Processing: Dealing with vague language.
 Medical Diagnosis: Considering uncertain medical data.
 Artificial Intelligence: Representing uncertainty in decision-making.
4. Fuzzy Evidence Theory:

o Fuzzy Dempster-Shafer Theory captures three types of uncertainty: fuzziness, non-specificity,

and conflict.

Q.3: what is type of error to an expert in systems?

 An expert system is a piece of software that simulates the behaviour and judgment of a human or an
organization with experts in a particular domain.

 It acquires relevant knowledge from its knowledge base (added by human experts) and interprets it to
solve problems.

Here are some types of errors related to expert systems:

1. Type I Error (False Positive): Accepting a hypothesis when it is not true. In other words, the system
incorrectly identifies something as true or relevant.
2. Type II Error (False Negative): Rejecting a hypothesis when it is true.

Q.4: what is probability reasoning in ai and cause of uncertainty?

 Probabilistic reasoning in Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a technique used to address uncertainty by

modelling and reasoning with probabilistic information.

 It allows AI systems to make decisions and predictions based on the probabilities of different
outcomes, taking into account uncertain or incomplete information1.

Causes of uncertainty in the real world include:

 Information from unreliable sources.

 Experimental errors.
 Equipment faults.
 Temperature variations.
 Climate change.
Q.5: Explain the phases of system development of life cycle?
The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) consists of several interconnected stages that ensure a systematic
approach to system development.

1. Plan: This stage lays the groundwork for the entire SDLC.

2. Analyse: During this phase, the focus is on gathering and understanding system requirements

3. Design: System Design is critical.

It translates requirements gathered during analysis into a detailed technical plan.

4. Develop: Actual coding and programming occur in this stage. Developers write code, create database

structures, and implement necessary functionalities.

5. Implement: Deployment of the developed system into the production environment happens here.

6. Maintain: Maintenance is an ongoing stage that involves monitoring, managing, and enhancing the

system’s performance and functionality

Q:6: difference between human expert and expert system?

1. Human Experts:

o Human experts are individuals who possess superior knowledge and expertise in a specific
domain. For example, a doctor, engineer, or lawyer.
o They rely on heuristics, rules of thumb, and their accumulated experience to solve problems
within their narrow field.
o Knowledge exists in their compiled forms within their brains.
o Human experts can explain their reasoning and provide detailed insights.
o They use inexact reasoning and can handle incomplete, uncertain, and fuzzy information.
o Their problem-solving quality improves over time due to years of learning and practical training.
o Availability is limited to specific working hours.

2. Expert Systems:

o Also known as knowledge-based systems, expert systems simulate the judgment and
behaviour of human experts.
o They process knowledge expressed as rules and use symbolic reasoning within a narrow
domain.
o Expert systems separate knowledge from processing, making it easier to manage and update.
o They can trace the rules used during problem-solving and explain conclusions.
o Expert systems handle inexact reasoning and cope with incomplete, uncertain, and fuzzy data.
o They enhance problem-solving quality by adding new rules or adjusting existing ones.
o Expert systems are always available, regardless of time or location.
o They solve problems quickly due to their efficient processing.
Q.7: what is meta knowledge?
 Meta-knowledge, also referred to as meta-knowledge or meta knowledge, is
knowledge about knowledge.
 It encompasses an individual’s understanding of what they know and how
they know it.
This includes
 awareness of learning processes,
 cognitive abilities,

 and levels of comprehension

Q.8: Explain deterministic inference engine?

An inference engine is a crucial component of an expert system in artificial intelligence (AI).

Its role is to process rules and data from a knowledge base and derive conclusions.

There are two main types of inference mechanisms:

Deterministic Inference Engine:

 Conclusions drawn from this type of engine are assumed to be true.

 It relies on facts and rules.

Probabilistic Inference Engine:

 This type contains uncertainty in conclusions and provides probabilistic results.

 Q.9: Describe the mar-kov decision process?
 A Markov decision process (MDP) is a discrete-time stochastic control process used to model
decision-making in situations where outcomes are partly random and partly under the control of a
decision maker.

A Markov Decision Process (MDP) model contains:

 A set of possible world states S.

 A set of Models.

 A set of possible actions A.

 A real-valued reward function R(s,a).

 A policy the solution of Markov Decision Process.

Q.10:discuss limitation of proposition logic?

Propositional logic has some limitations. Let’s explore them:

1.Inability to Conclude Truth for All Statements:

o In propositional logic, we cannot determine the truth of all statements. Some valid arguments cannot be
translated into purely propositional logic.
o For example, consider the statement “All the chemicals and equipment in the chemistry lab are
functioning properly.” We can’t conclude whether the business lab is functioning based on this
statement alone1.

2.Lack of Descriptive Power:

o Propositional logic cannot describe properties that apply to categories of objects or relationships
between those properties.
o It doesn’t allow us to express more complex relationships beyond simple truth values.
o For instance, it cannot reason about arithmetic laws or other non-logical laws2.

3.No Representation of Non-Truth-Functional Structure:

o Propositions often contain logical structures that are not truth-functional (e.g., quantifiers, predicates),
but propositional logic cannot represent them.
 o As a result, it may yield incorrect results, implying invalidity when an argument is actually valid

Q.11: define the method of inference?

statistical inference is the process of using a sample to make conclusions about the properties of a
population.

Here’s how it works:

1. Sample Selection:
 Researchers draw a representative sample from a larger population.
 This sample should adequately represent the characteristics of the entire population.
2. Measurement:
 Variables of interest are measured within the sample.
 For example, if studying the effects of a new medication, researchers would measure relevant
outcomes (e.g., symptom improvement) in the sample.
3. Generalization:
 Statistical methods are then used to generalize the sample results to the entire population.
 This accounts for sampling error. Researchers estimate population parameters (e.g., average
symptom improvement) based on sample statistics.
4. Methodology:
o Depending on the study design, researchers might create treatment and control groups,
administer treatments, and reduce other sources of variation.

Q.12: how to use logic and set of symbols to represent

knowledge?
Specifically, we’ll delve into First-Order Logic (FOL), which is commonly employed for knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence.

1. First-Order Logic (FOL):

o FOL extends propositional logic and provides a more expressive way to represent knowledge.
o Unlike propositional logic, which deals with simple true/false statements, FOL allows us to
express relationships between objects, properties, and functions.
o In FOL, we assume that the world contains:
 Objects: These can be people, houses, numbers, colors, or any other entities.
 Relations: These describe properties or connections between objects (e.g., “red,”
“brother of,” “part of”).
 Functions: These map objects to other objects (e.g., “father of,” “one more than”).
o FOL is context-dependent, similar to natural language, where meaning depends on context.

2. Syntax of FOL:

o Basic elements include:

 Constant Symbols: Represent specific objects (e.g., “KingJohn,” “UCI”).
  Predicate Symbols: Stand for relations (e.g., “Brother(Richard, John),” “greater_than(3,
2)”).
 Function Symbols: Represent functions (e.g., “Sqrt(3),” “LeftLegOf(John)”).
 Variables: Denoted by letters (e.g., x, y, a, b).
 Connectives: Logical operators like AND (∧), OR (∨), NOT (¬).
 Quantifiers: Existential (∃) and universal (∀).

3. Atomic Sentences:

o These state facts using terms and predicate symbols.

o Example: “P(x, y)” can be interpreted as “x is P of y.”

4. Set Theory in FOL:

o We can define set theory using FOL:

 Empty set: Represented by a constant symbol (e.g., { }).
 Elements: Represented by individual variables (x, y, …).
 Unary predicate: “Set(S)” (true for sets).
 Binary predicate: “member(x, s)” (true if x is a member of set s)

Q.13. what is the expected life cycle of an expert system?

The life cycle of an expert system has five stages.

1. Identification: Determining the characteristics of the problem.

2. Conceptualization: Finding the concept to produce the solution.
3. Formalization: Designing structures to organize the knowledge.
4. Implementation: Formulating rules which embody the knowledge.
5. Testing: Validation, Verification and Maintenance.
Q.14: discuss the compound and conditional probability?
1. Conditional Probability:

o Conditional probability refers to the likelihood of an event occurring given that another event
has already happened.
o It is denoted as (P(A|B)), where:
 (A) represents the event we’re interested in.
 (B) represents the event that has already occurred.
o The formula for conditional probability is: [ P(A|B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)} ]
 Here, (P(A \cap B)) represents the joint probability of events (A) and (B), and (P(B)) is the
probability of event (B).
o For example, if we want to find the probability of a student taking leave on Saturday given that
they’ve already taken leave on Tuesday, we use conditional probability.

2. Compound Probability:

o Compound probability deals with the likelihood of multiple events happening together.
o When the occurrence of one event impacts the occurrence of another event, they are
considered dependent events.
o The joint probability of events (A) and (B) can be expressed as: [ P(A \cap B) = P(A) \cdot P(B|A)
]
 Here, (P(B|A)) represents the probability of event (B) after event (A) has already occurred.

Q.15: what are the semantics nets and explain its limits?
 semantic networks are an alternative form of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

 They use a graph structure with nodes representing objects or concepts and arcs representing
relationships between those objects.

Here’s how they work:

1. Representation:

o Nodes: Represent objects, concepts, or classes (e.g., “cat,” “bird,” “mammal”).

o Arcs (Links): Represent relationships (e.g., “is_a,” “owns,” “likes”).
o Example:
o Cat --is_a--> Mammal
o Tom --owns--> Cat
o Cat --likes--> Cream
2. Advantages:

o Closer to human cognition: Semantic nets mimic how humans mentally link information.
o Concentrated information: All details about an object are stored at its node.
 o Simplicity: Graph-based structure is intuitive.
3. Limitations:

o Imprecise nature: Nodes can represent both individual objects and classes, leading to
confusion.
o Ambiguity: The “is_a” link can mean different things (individual membership or class subset).
o Passive relationships: To avoid passive voice, the “is_owned_by” link is reversed (e.g., “John
owns Tom”).

Q.16: what is meaning of propositional logic and first order predicate logic?
1. Propositional Logic:

o In propositional logic, we deal with a collection of declarative statements that have a truth
value (either true or false).
o A proposition is a declarative sentence with a specific truth value. For example:
 “The sun rises in the east.” (True)
 “The sun rises in the west.” (False)
o Logical operators (such as negation, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) are used to combine
propositions.
o Propositional logic is also known as Boolean logic and is widely used in computer science.
o Scope analysis is not performed in propositional logic.

2. Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic):

o Predicate logic extends propositional logic by introducing predicates and quantification.

o A predicate is a property that provides additional information about the subject of a sentence.
o Quantified predicates involve assigning values to variables within a predicate, making them
propositions.
o Example:
 Predicate: (P(x)) (where (x) represents a variable)
 Predicate statement: “If (x) is greater than 5.”
o Quantifiers in predicate logic:
 Universal Quantifier (∀): Denotes “for all.” It asserts that a statement holds true for
every value in the domain.
 Existential Quantifier (∃): Denotes “there exists.” It asserts that there exists at least one
value for which the statement is true.
 Uniqueness Quantifier (∃!): Denotes “exactly one.” It asserts that there is exactly one
value satisfying the statement.

o Predicate logic allows us to analyze the scope of subjects over predicates.

Q.17: discuss the procedural and non-procedural paradigms?

 1. Procedural Paradigm:
Procedural languages use an imperative programming approach, where the program code is written
as a sequence of instructions. These instructions specify both what to do and how to do it (step by
step).

o Examples: Common procedural languages include FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, BASIC, C,

and Pascal.
o Characteristics:
 Command-driven: The user specifies both the task and the detailed steps to achieve it.
 State-based: Execution occurs based on the current state of the program.
 Semantics: Can be complex.
 Data Types: Returns restricted data types and allowed values.
 Efficiency: Generally high.
 Program Size: Larger.
 Suitability: Not ideal for time-critical applications.
 Control Flow: Uses iterative loops and recursive calls.

2. Non-Procedural Paradigm:
Non-procedural languages follow a declarative programming approach. Users specify what to do, but
not how to do it. These languages are also known as applicative or functional languages.

o Examples: Notable non-procedural languages include SQL, PROLOG, and LISP.

o Characteristics:
 Function-driven: Focuses on constructing functions from other functions.
 Mathematical Functions: Used for computation.
 Semantics: Simpler.
 Data Types: Can return any data type or value.
 Efficiency: Generally lower than procedural languages.
 Program Size: Smaller.
 Suitability: Suitable for time-critical applications.
 Control Flow: Utilizes recursive calls.

Q.18: define expert system its advantages and disadvantages?

expert system:
 An expert system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence technologies to simulate the
judgment and behaviour of an organization or human with expertise and experience in a particular
field.
 These systems are formulated to solve complex problems and offer decision-making abilities similar
to humans.

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of expert systems:

Advantages:

1. Enhanced Output and Productivity: Expert systems work more rapidly than humans, leading to increased
productivity.
2. Reduced Decision-Making Time: They allow rapid decision-making, which is efficient for frontline decision-
makers who often interact with customers.
 3. Consistency: Expert systems consistently apply rules and knowledge, avoiding human errors.
4. Low Error Rate: They make fewer mistakes compared to humans.

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of Emotions: Expert systems lack human emotions, which can be both an advantage and a limitation.
2. Common Sense Limitations: They struggle with common sense reasoning, as their knowledge is based on
explicit rules and facts.
3. Domain-Specific: Expert systems are developed for specific domains and may not generalize well to other
areas.

Q.19: what is tree and lattices?

1. Trees:

o In mathematics, a tree is a finite connected linear graph that contains no cycles. It’s an acyclic
structure.
o Trees are often used to model hierarchical relationships or branching structures.
o Examples of trees include family trees, decision trees, and data structures like binary trees.
o A tree consists of nodes (vertices) connected by edges (branches), and it has no loops or
cycles.
o Trees play a crucial role in computer science, algorithms, and data structures.
2. Lattices:

o A lattice is a mathematical structure defined on a non-empty set that is closed under two
binary operations: meet (denoted by ∧) and join (denoted by ∨).
o A lattice satisfies the following axioms:
1. Commutative Law:
 (a \land b = b \land a)
 (a \lor b = b \lor a)
2. Associative Law:
 ((a \land b) \land c = a \land (b \land c))
 ((a \lor b) \lor c = a \lor (b \lor c))
3. Absorption Law:
 (a \land (a \lor b) = a)
 (a \lor (a \land b) = a)
o Bounded lattices have a greatest element (1) and a least element (0).
o Lattices are used in various fields, including order theory, algebra, and logic.

Q.20: Discuss the source of uncertainty in rules?

Uncertainty in rules can arise from various sources. Let’s explore them:
1. Imprecise Language: When translating natural language into IF-THEN rules, ambiguity or imprecision
can occur due to the inherent vagueness of human language.
 2. Incomplete Information: Sometimes the available information isn’t sufficient for an expert to make a
decision.
3. Incorrect or Unreliable Data: Errors in data (incomplete, incorrect, missing, unreliable) contribute to
uncertainty.
4. Uncertain Terminology: Different terms may have multiple meanings, leading to uncertainty.
5. Errors in Hypothesis Testing:

o Type I Error: Accepting a hypothesis when it’s false (False Positive).

o Type II Error: Rejecting a hypothesis when it’s true (False Negative).
6. Random Fluctuations and Systematic Errors: Measurement errors due to randomness or bias
introduce uncertainty.
7. Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning (from specific to general) involves heuristics, leading to
inherent uncertainty.
8. Combining Expert Views: When multiple experts provide conflicting rules, uncertainty arises.

To address uncertainty, methods include:

 Probability-based: Objective, experimental, and subjective probabilities.

 Heuristic: Certainty factors and fuzzy logic.
 Theories like Bayesian Probability, Hartley Theory, Shannon Theory, Dempster-Shafer Theory, Markov Models,
and Fuzzy Theory