Learning: Theories of learning (Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive

learning Observational learning) Transfer of learning, Applications of learning.

Concept of learning:

The learning process is crucial to all Organism including humans in that it helps us to
acquire important skills and adapt to change in condition in the world around us.

The behaviour occurs because of learning. if our loan responses were taken away from us
there would be no behaviour left. In the broadest sense learning occurs with experience
caused a relatively permanent change in the individuals knowledge or behaviour. it may be
deliberate or unintentional for better or for worse. to qualify as learning,This change must
be brought about by experience, buy the interaction of a person with his or her
environment. changes simply caused by maturation, such as growing taller or turning grey,
do not qualify as learning. temporary changes resulting from illness, fatigue or hunger are
also excluded from a general definition of learning. a person who has gone without food for
2 days does not learn to be hungry and a person who is ill does not learn to run more
slowly.naturally learning plays a part In how we Respond to hunger or illness.

meaning and nature:

Learning occupies a very important place in our life, Most of what we do or do not do it
influence by what we learned or how we have learnt it. learning provides a key or structure
to one's personality or behaviour. and individual starts learning immediately after his birth
or in a strict sense even earlier when in the womb of the mother. Experience, direct or
indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of
individual from the very beginning while approaching a burning matchstick the child gets
burnt and he withdraws, next time, when he faces a burning matchstick he wastes no time
in withdrawing himself away.

he learns to avoid not only the burning matchstick but also all burning things. when this
happened we say that the child has learned that if one touches the flames, one get burnt.
In the same way from other experiences he may reach conclusion like “ The green apples
are sour” “Barking dogs seldom bite” “Be very cautious in believing strangers” etc.

All these conclusion derived from the Experiences, direct or indirect, bring a change in
ones behaviour of the individual. These changes in one's Behaviour brought about by
experience are commonly known as learning. in this way, the term learning broadly
speaking stands for all those changes and modifications in the behaviour of the individual
which he undergoes from his birth till death.

Definitions :
 1. Garden Murphy : “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet
environmental requirements” (1968)
2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience” (1962)
3. Woodworth: “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual
(in any respect, good or bad) And makes him alter behaviour and experience
different from what that would otherwise have been” (1945)
4. Crow and Crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitude. it
involves new ways of doing things and it operates on the individuals attempt to
overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents Progressive
changes in behaviour. it enables him to satisfy in trusts to attain of goal” (1973)

Facts about meaning and nature of learning:

1. Learning is a process and not the product

2. it involves all those experiences and trading of an individual (right from his birth)
Which helps him to produce changes in his behaviour
3. learning leads to bring changes in the behaviour but it does not necessarily mean
that these changes always bring improvement or development in the positive
direction. One has equal chances to be drifted side of the human personality.
4. Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and adaptation
5. all learning is purposeful and goal oriented. in case there is no purpose there would
be definitely be hardly any learning
6. the scope of learning is too wide to explain in words. it is a very comprehensive
process which covers nearly all the domains, conative, cognitive, and affective of
human behaviour
7. Learning is universal and continuous. every creature that lives learns. in human
beings it is not limited to any age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous never
ending process that goes from womb to tomb.
8. Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on account of maturation,
fatigue, illness or drugs, etc.

The changes produced in behaviour by maturation are definitely linked with the unfolding
and ripening of inherited traits (the process of natural growth) They are quite independent
of activity, practice or experience.

In the words of Biggie and Hunt (1968) “Maturation is a developmental process which a
person from time to time manifests different traits, ‘blue print’ of which have been carried
in his cell from time of his conception”.
Types of learning:

Learning is defined as a process of bringing relatively permanent changes in the behaviour

of an Organism may be classified in a number of categories depending upon the domain or
specific area of the behaviour in which changes are introduced or in terms of the method or
technique that r employed for the introduction of behavioral changes.

If we follow the former criterion, the learning can be classified as verbal learning (Involving
verbal expressions) , Learning or motor skills (such as walking, Dancing, typing, swimming
etc.) affective learning (Learning of concepts, principles, problem solving etc.)

In the case of the latter criterion, We may characterise learning as trial and error learning,
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, chain learning, shaping, learning through
generalization. learning through discrimination, serial learning, associate learning,
insightful learning etc.

In alternative basis adapted by Gange (1970) From the purpose of classifying learning is
word monitoring, by taking into consideration, a specific hierarchy order. he has classified
learning into 8 types namely, signal learning (classical conditioning) SR learning
(Instrumental and operant conditioning), Chain learning, verbal associated learning,
multiple discrimination, learning of concepts, learning of principles, and problem solving.

1. verbal learning: Learning of this type helps in acquisition of verbal behaviour. the
language we speak, the communication devices we use, at the results of such
learning. rote learning and rote memorization which is a type of school learning is
also included in the verbal learning. Signs, Pictures, symbols, words, figures,
sounds and voices etc. R employed by the individual as an instrument for engaging
him in the process of verbal learning.
2. Motor learning: The learning of all types of motor skills may be included in such type
of learning. learning how to swim, riding a horse, driving a car,, flying a plane playing
a piano, hitting a moving target, drawing a geometrical design, adding and
multiplying long digits, performing experiments and handling various instruments
are the examples of such learning. acquisition of various skills through such
learning helps in acquiring speed and accuracy in the field of operation of these
skills and creates a sort of confidence in him to perform the task with great ease and
satisfaction. The art of these skills can be acquired through a systematic and
planned way of the acquisition and fixation of a series of organised actions or
responses by making use of some appropriate learning methods and devices.
3. concept learning: A concept is a form of a mental image denotes a generalised idea
about the things person or events. for example, a concept of a tree is a mental
 image that brings to us and Similarities or common properties of all the different
trees we know. We will all call a thing tree which it has some specific
characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on
account of our previous experience, perception or rich imagination. The formation of
such concepts on account of previous experience, training or cognitive processes is
called concept learning. such type of concept learning proves very useful in
recognising, naming and identifying the things. All of our behaviour verbal, symbolic,
mortar as well as cognitive are influenced by our concept. Thus What we do, say,
Understand, reason and judge is to a great extent, controlled by the quality of our
concept learning.
4. Problem solving: In the ladder of learning and acquisition of behaviour, problem
solving denotes a high type of learning. Such type of learning requires the use of
cognitive abilities like reasoning, Thinking the power of observation, discrimination,
generalization, imagination, ability to infer and draw conclusions. Based on the
grounds of earlier experiences, effects of coaching, training, formal or informal
learning and acquisition of knowledge, habits, Attitudes, interests and learning sets
etc. An individual may be motivated to reach an unknown target or unfolding the
mystery of an unsolved problem. How he can be trained to accomplish such a Task
is the function of problem solving. this type of learning has essentially caused
human beings to contribute significantly to the progress and improvement of society
5. serial learning: Serial learning consists of such learning in which the learner is
presented With such type of learning materials that exhibit some sequential or serial
order. children often encountered such a learning situation in schools where they
are expected to master list of materials such as the alphabets, multiplication
Tables, names of all the states in their country, name of the president or Prime
Minister in ordered etc. The experimental studies performed in the field of serial
learning tells us that out of the serial learning material, the items presented at the
beginning and the end of the list are easier to remember than those in the middle
and this appears true whether the items are nonsense syllables, actual words or
longer passages such as poems.
6. Paired-associated learning: In this learning, tasks are presented in such a way that
they may be learned on account of their association. The name of the village like
kishanpur is remembered on account of its association with the name of Lord
Krishna and the girls name Ganga by learning it in a form of making paid association
with the river Ganges. Much of the verbal or motor learning may, thus, by learnt or
remembered on account of techniques of paid or multiple association.

Theories of learning:
Theory of classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov:

In his laboratory, while studying the functioning of the digestive system, a Russian
psychologist named Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Encountered an unforeseen Problem, the
experimental dog salivated not only upon actual eating but also when they saw the
food, noticed the man Who usually brought it or even here the footsteps of their feeder.

Pavlov begin to study this phenomenon which he called “conditioning” Since the type
of conditioning emphasised was the classical one quite different from the conditioning
emphasise by the other psychologist at the later stages. it has been named as classical
conditioning for understanding the nature of the conditioning the type of experiments
performed by Pavlov.

In one of his experiment Pavlov Kept a dog hungry for a few days and then tied him to
the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices.
The dog was made comfortable and distraction where excluded as far as it was possible
to do so.

The observer kept himself hidden from the view of the dog but was able to view the
experiment by means of the set of mirrors. the arrangement was made to give food to
the dog through automatic device. every time the food was presented to the dog, he
also arranged for the ringing of the bell. When the food was presented to the dog and
the bell was rung. There was automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog.
The activity of presenting the food accompanied with the ringing of the bell was
repeated several times and the amount of saliva secreted was measured.

After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. in this case also the
amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured. It was found that even in the
absence of food (The natural stimulus), The ringing of the bell (Artificial stimulus)
caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response)

The experiment thus brings Into the picture of the 4 essential elements of the
conditioning process.

the first element is natural stimulus technically known as unconditional stimulus i.e.,
Food. it results in the natural response known as unconditional response. this
response constitutes the second element. The 3rd element is the artificial stimulus that
like ringing of the bell which is technically known as conditioned stimulus. it is
substituted in the ways of the natural stimulus (food) Initially the condition stimulus
does not evoke the desired response i.e., Conditioned response. The 4th element is the
chain of the conditioning process. However, as a result of conditioning, one learns to
produce behaviour to form condition response as a reaction of conditioned stimulus.
 Principles of classical conditioning:

The theory of classical conditioning emphasised by Pavlov and Watson give birth to a
number of important concepts and principles in the field of learning as

1. Extinction
2. Spontaneous recovery
3. Stimulus generalization and
4. Stimulus discrimination.

Operant conditioning

Although classified an included in the category of conditioning. Operant conditioning

differs a lot from classical conditioning advocated by Pavlov and Watson. The most
outstanding difference lies in order to relate it with the initiation and response i.e., Stimulus
response mechanism

In classical conditioning there is Organism is passive. it must make wait for something to
happen for responding. The presence of stimulus for evoking a response is essential. The
behaviour cannot be emitted in the absence of a Cause. The child expresses fear only when
he hears a loud noise, The dog waits for food 2 arrive before salivating. in each of such
instance, the subject has no control over the happening. he is made to behave in response
to the stimulus situation. Thus, the behaviour is said to be initiated by the environment, the
Organism simply response.

Skinner revolted against “No stimulus, no response” Mechanism in the evolution of

behaviour. He argued that in practical situations in our life. We cannot always wait for
things to happen in the environment. man is not a victim of the environment. he may often
manipulate the things in the environment with his own initiative. Therefore, is not always
essential that there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking or response quite
often, most of our responses could not be attributed to the known stimuli. The Organism
itself initiates the behaviour. A dog, a child, or an individual “does” Something, “Behaves”
In some manner, it “operates” On the environment and in turn the environment response to
the activity. How the environment responds to the activity, rewarding or not, largely
determines whether the behaviour will be repeated, Maintained or avoided.

From where Skinner got the cue For such ideas in a question that can arise from this stage.
Definitely, it was from the studies and observations of an earlier psychologist named
Edward Thorndike. Through his experiment of propagating his famous trial and error theory
of learning, Thorndike concluded that the rewards of a response (like getting food after a
chance success through randomised movements) leads to repetition of an act and the
strengthening of SR Associations.
The conclusions made Skinner begin a series of experiments to find the consequent of the
rewards in repeating and maintaining behaviour. based on the findings of his experiment,
he concluded that “Behaviour is shaped and maintained by the consequences. it is
operated by the organism in maintained by its results” The occurrence of such behaviour
was named as operant behaviour and the process of learning that plays a part in learning
such behaviour was named by him as operant conditioning.

Operant

Skinner considers an off print as a set of acts which constitutes an Organism doing
something example rising its head walking about, pushing a lever etc.

Reinforce and Reinforcement

The concept of reinforcement is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforce is the

stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response
reoccurring Skinner things of 2 kinds of reinforces Positive and negative.

a positive reinforce is any stimulus that introduction or presentation of which increases the
likelihood of a particular behaviour. Food, water, sexual Contact etc., are classified as
positive reinforces. A negative reinforce is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal Of which
increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. electric shock, a loud noise etc. Are said
to be negative reinforces.

Skinner Experiments regarding Operant Conditioning:

B.F Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals. For conducting The
experiments with rats, he designed a special apparatus known as skinners box. It was a
much modified form of the puzzle box used by thorndike for his experiments with the cats.
the darkened sound proof box mainly consists of a grid floor, a system of lights or sound
produce at the time of delivering a palette of food in the food cup, a lever and a food cup. It
is a ranged so that when a rat ( Hungry or thirsty) Presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is
activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a small pallet of food ( Or small drops
of water) Is released into the food cup. 4 recording the observations of the experiments, the
lever is connected with the recording system which produces a graphic tracing of the lever
pressing Against the length of time the rat is in the box.

To begin with, Skinner, in one of his experiments placed a hungry rat, the experiment
presses of the bar is the desirable way by the rat could result in production of a click sound
and presence of food pallet. The click sound acted as a Q or signal indicating to the rat that
if It responds by going to the food cup, it will be rewarded. The rat was rewarded for each of
his proper attempts for pressing the lever. The lever press response having been rewarded,
was repeated and when it occurred it was again rewarded which further increased the
probability of the repetition of the liver press response and so on. in this way, ultimately the
rat launch the art of pressing lever as desired by the experimenter.

Mechanism of operant conditioning:

Operating conditioning as emphasis earlier is correlated with operant behaviour. And

operant is a set of acts that constitutes an Organism doing something. hence the process
of operant conditioning may start with the responses as they occur “Naturally” or “at
random”.

In case they do not occur naturally then attempts may be made for shaping them into
existence.

once a response (As desired by the trainer, experimenter or teacher) Occurs, it is

reinforced through a suitable reinforcer ( Primary or secondary, positive or negative )

In skinner’s experiment a palette of food work as a positive primary reinforcer for the
hungry rat. he got the reinforcement after emitting a certain response (Pressing of the lever)
The secondary reinforcement may be reduce the same results as brought about the
primary reinforcement. it is a sort of neutral stimulus which requires the reinforcing
properties (Rewarding value) after getting paid or associated with the primary reinforcer (
Example food or water)

Shaping: There are situations specially in case of acquisition of complex behaviour and
learning of difficult skills etc., Where they may be arise very remote Chances of the
occurrence of the responses in a specific way at random (Natural occurrence) Example.
the chances for a pigeon to dance in a specific way are extremely remote. The same holds
true for a child learning Russian or even table manners. In these situations, where the
desired responses do not occur at random efforts are made for eliciting the appropriate
responses. It is done by building a chain or responses to a step by step process called
shaping. Shaping may be used as successful technique for making individuals learn
difficult and complex behaviour and also for introducing desirable modifications in the
behaviour.

Implications:

1. Our response or behaviour is not necessarily dependent upon a specific known

stimuli. It is more correct to think that a behaviour or response is dependent upon
its consequences. Therefore, What training and Organism to learn a particular
behaviour or response, he may be initiated to respond in such a way as to produce
the reinforcing stimulus.
 2. the principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in the task of
behaviour modification. When the behaviour next occurs it is again rewarded and
the rate of responding goes up even more going in the same way, we will be able to
make the individual learn the desired behaviour.
3. the task of the development of human personality can be successfully manipulated
through operant conditioning. According to Skinner, “We are what we have been
rewarded for being. we will call personality is nothing more than consistent
behaviour patterns that summarises our reinforcement history. We learn to speak
English, for example, because we have been rewarded for approximating the sounds
of the English language in our early home environment”.
4. The theory of operant condition does not attribute motivation to internal processes
within the Organism it takes from granted the consequences of A behaviour or
response as a source of motivation to further occurrence off that behaviour. Food is
a reinforcer to a rat or a pigeon. knowledge of correct response is reinforcing to a
learner. secondary reinforcers also prove very important sources of motivation for a
learner. Verbal praise, positive facial expression of trainer or teacher, feeling of
success, scores, grades, prices, medals and the opportunity to do the work of one's
liking all constitute good motivator. in this way operant conditioning provides an
external approach to motivation.
5. Operant conditioning lace stress on the importance of schedules in the process of
reinforcement of the behaviour. in trying to train or learn a behaviour therefore,
Great care is to be taken for the proper planning of the schedule of reinforcement.
6. This theory advocated the avoidance of punishment for unlearning the undesirable
behaviour and for shaping the desirable behaviour. Punishment proves ineffective in
the long run. it appears that punishment simply suppresses behaviour and when the
threat of punishment is removed, behaviour returns to its original level.
7. in its most effective application, theory of operant conditioning has contributed a
lot towards the development of teaching mechanism and programmed learning.
A) The learning material is so designed that it creates less opportunities for
gaining success.
B) the learner is given rapid feedback concerning the currency of his learning
and
C) the learner is able to learn at his own pace.

Cognitive learning:

Cognitive learning is an educational approach that gives major importance to effective

usage of the brain. to understand and implement that, one must know the meaning of
cognition. cognition is defined as the process of gaining knowledge and understanding
concepts with the help of our senses, thoughts and experiences.

Cognitive learning theory makes use of metacognition. it loosely translates to “thinking

about thinking”. It means the process of understanding how an individual’s thoughts
influence learning. Usually, it is contrasted against or complemented by the behavioral
learning theory which gives complete emphasis on the influence of students environment
on learning.

the word cognitive comes from “cognition” , Which describes the ability to think, perceive,.
Remember and solve problems cognitive learning theory, on the other hand, is a theory that
highlights how the human mind works during the learning process. It focuses on how the
brain process information and explores the way through which learning occurs.

Education psychologist Jean piaget Came up with the theory as per which he believed that
external and internal factors influence mental processes to produce learning in an
individual. he posited the theory to highlight that knowledge is actively constructed by
learners depending on their existing cognitive structures.

What are the process of cognitive learning theory?

1. Perception: Perception refers to recognising the environmental stimuli and the

action while responding to the stimuli. It is a significant cognitive learning process
where an individual process information during simple or complex events. In
addition, prior experience also affects one’s perception.
2. Concept formation: Concept formation helps to organise information accordingly in
different categories. for instance, it helps to decide which way to go after seeing a
road sign pointing in a specific direction.
3. Memory: Memory forms the foundation of the cognitive learning process as it helps
to store and recover information that individuals have previously learned. Moreover,
it does not focus on short term or long term memory. Instead, It emphasises
creating an environment of mastering a concept that helps them to relate to their
prior experiences.
4. Application: The application component of the cognitive learning approach
promotes the application of new information or skills in real life situations.
Consequently, helping to develop Problem solving skills.

Strategies of cognitive learning:

1. Learner centred strategy

2. Learning through Discovery Strategy
3. Meaningful learning strategy and
4. Personalised learning strategy
1. learner centred strategy : as the term suggests, this strategy focuses on the
students, Taking a cue from the accumulated knowledge, education, previous
experience and ideas. Therefore, this approach is about relating new information to
existing knowledge. So, when any chapter or topic is started in the class, the
students can share their opinions and views.

Three significant components of learner centred approach

a) Accommodation: Incorporating new information by modifying what the

individuals already know.
b) Assimilation: Organising the new knowledge in the brains apart from what
already they know.
c) Equilibrium: Balancing the new information that the individual is trying to
acquire with the existing knowledge.
2. Learning through discovery strategy: Learning is a continuous process, and there
is no end to it, hence as per this strategy, individuals have the liberty to build
knowledge by exploring new ideas. Furthermore, this strategy helps develop
analytical skills as it helps analyse Any problem and come up with the best solution.
it encourages individuals to discover answers by themselves and put them face to
face with real world issues. Additionally, this strategy is often used in one of the level
of bloom’s taxonomy.
3. Meaningful learning strategy: The most commonly used technique that students
and educators employed to learn a lesson is rote learning. but that results in
ineffective learning because they can't retain the information and hence cannot
apply it to any situation or problem. In stark contrast, cognitive learning strategies
like meaningful learning strategy helps to inculcate a wholesome experience for
students. The approach guides instructors to implement several active learning
activities, which enhances the student teacher dynamics. Additionally, it also
fosters students responsibility.
4. Personalised learning strategy: Each student is a unique individual and has their
own problems and perspectives about the world. Hence, it is only appropriate for
instructors to create a learning experience to fit individuals depending on their
knowledge. A personalised learning strategy helps educators design a plan of action
for students to optimise their strengths and improve their shortcomings. Also,
institutes often use a learning management system to implement the strategy in the
classroom.

Types of cognitive strategies:

 1. Explicit learning: Explicit learning is the voluntary attempt to learn something that
an individual desires, when they actively seek knowledge or try to learn a new skill or
process. an example of explicit learning is when student enrol themselves in a
photography course to learn the specific technique to capture a high resolution
picture.
2. Implicit learning: Implicit learning happens when the individual passively gains
new knowledge or skill while unaware of the entire process. this kind of learning
occurs when they work, talk, or do any normal day to day work. for instance, typing
fast without looking at the keyboard is an ideal example of implicit learning.
3. Meaningful learning: Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are able to
relate the newly acquired information with their past experiences. This is possible
because the cognitive learning approach enables individuals to apply problem
solving skills in different areas of life.
4. Collaborative learning: The strategy also encourages instructors to include
activities and tasks in the classroom that requires student to do collaborative
learning. Furthermore, when students work in groups or teams, it helps to build
social skills and develop their ideas and knowledge.
5. Experiential learning: Experiential learning happens throughout one’s academic
life and career. When individuals take valuable lessons from the experiences (Both
positive and negative), For instance, while participating in an assignment, a student
might not score the highest marks. Still, it would help him to understand why he
lagged.

Benefits of cognitive learning:

1. It builds confidence and provides an in depth understanding of core concept and

the underlying meaning of many things
2. through cognitive learning, individuals can build upon previous ideas in knowledge.
Hence, when the individual learns any new information, it gets added to previous
knowledge, thereby, Increasing their knowledge.
3. Instead of mechanical root learning, the strategy promotes intensive learning and
understanding new concepts and material.
4. it helps to promote problem solving skills and encourages to apply them in relevant
situations.
5. it also helps to breakdown complex issues through concept formation and
perception. consequently it helps to foster creativity, unable finding solution to any
given problem.
Observational learning:

Bandura (1985) Found that humans, who are social animals, naturally gravitate toward
observational learning. for example, children may watch their family members and mimic
their behaviours.

In observational learning, people learn by watching others and then imitate or modeling
what they do or say. Thus, The individuals or objects performing the initiated behaviour are
called models.

Even infant may start imitating the mouth movements and facial expression of adults
around them.

They are four processes at bandura's research identified as influencing observational

learning: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Debell, 2021).

Attention:

1. In order to learn, observers must pay attention to their environment. The attention
levels of a learned person can vary based on the characteristics of the model and
the environment where they are learning the behaviour.
2. These variables can include how similar the model is to the observer and the
observer’s current mood. Humans, Bandura (1985) proposed, are likely to pay
attention to the behaviour of models that are high-status, talented, intelligent, or
similar to the learner in some way.
For example: someone seeking to climb th3 corporate ladder may observe the
behaviour of their managers and the vice president of their company abd try to
mimic their behaviours

Retention:

1. Attention in itself, however, is not enough to learn a new behavior. observers must
also retain or remember the behaviour at a later time? in order to increase the
chances of retention, the observer can structure the information in a way that is
easy to remember.
2. This could involve using mnemonic device Or a daily learning habit, search as
spaced repetition. In the end, however, the behaviour must be easily remembered
so that the action can later be performed by the learner with little or no effect.

Motor reproduction:
 1. After retention comes the ability to actually perform a behaviour in real life, often,
producing a new behaviour can require hours of practice in order to obtain the
necessary skills to do so.
2. Thus, the process of reproduction is one that can potentially take years to craft and
perfect.

Motivation:

1. Finally, all learning requires, to some extent, personal motivation. Thus, in

observational learning, an observer must be motivated to produce the desired
behaviour.
2. This motivation can be either Intrinsic or extrinsic to the observer. In the latter case,
Motivation comes in the form of rewards and punishments.
3. for example, the Extrinsic motivation of someone seeking to climb the corporate
ladder could include the incentive of earning a high salary and more autonomy at
work.

The bobo doll experiment:

Bandura’s Barbie doll experiment is one classic in the field of observational learning. in all,
this experiment showed that children could and would mimic violate behaviours simply by
observing others.

In these experiments, Bandura (1985) And his researchers showed children a video where
a model would act aggressively toward an inflatable doll by hitting, punching, kicking, and
verbally assaulting the doll.

in the end of the video had 3 different outcomes. either the model was punished for their
behaviour, rewarded for it, or there were no consequences.

After watching this behaviour, the researcher gave the children a bobo doll identical to the
one in the video.

Darasal Archers found that children were more likely to mimic violent behaviours when
they observe the model receiving a reward or when no consequences occurred.

Alternatively, children who observed the model being punished for their violence showed
less violence towards the doll.

Observational learning examples:

There are numerous examples of observational learning everyday in life For people of all
ages.
Nonetheless, observational learning is specially prevalent in socialising of children. for
example:

1. An infant could learn to chew by watching adults chew food.

2. After witnessing and older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without
permission, the young child does not take a cookie without permission.
3. A school child may learn to write cursive letters by observing their teacher write
them on the board.
4. Children may learn to play hide and seek by seeing other children playing the game
and being rewarded in the form of entertainment.
5. Children may also learn to say swear words after watching other children say swear
words and gain social status.
6. A child may learn how to drive a car by making appropriate motions after seeing a
parent driving.
7. A young boy can swing a baseball bat without being explicitly thought how to do it
after attending a baseball game. Similarly, a child could learn how to shoot hoops
after a basketball game without instructions.
8. A child may be able to put on roller skates and stand on them without explicit
instructions.
9. A student may learn not to cheat by watching Another student be punished for doing
so.
10. a child may avoid stepping on ice after seeing another child fall in front of them.

Positive and negative outcomes:

1. Bandura concluded that people and animals alike watch and learn and that this
learning can have both pro social and anti social effects.
2. pro social or positive model can be used to encourage socially acceptable
behaviour. for example, parents, by reading to their children, can teach their
children to read more.
3. Meanwhile, parents who want their children to eat healthy can in themselves eat
healthily and exercise, as well as spend time engaging in physical fitness activities
together.
4. Observational learning argues that children tend to copy what parents do above
what they say.
5. observational learning has also been used to explain how anti social behaviour
develop. for example, researchers suggests that observational learning is a reason
why many abused children grow up to become abusers themselves.
 6. Abused children tend to grow up witnessing their parents deal with anger and
frustration through violent and aggressive acts, often learning to behave in that
manner themselves.
7. some studies have also suggested that violate television shows many also have anti
social effects, though this is a controversial claim.

Observational learning and behavioural modification: Observational learning can be

used to change already learned behaviour, both positive and negative.

Bandura asserted that if all behaviours are learned by observing others, and people can
model their behaviour on that of those around them, then undesirable behaviours can be
altered or relearned in the same way.

bandura suggested showing people a model in a situation that usually causes them some
anxiety.

for example, psychologist may attempt to help someone Overcome their fear of getting
blood drawn by showing someone using relaxation technique during a blood drawn to stay
calm.

By seeing the model interact nicely with the fear evoking stimulus, the fear should subside.
this method of behavioural modification is widely used in clinical, business, and classroom
situations.

Transfer of learning:

We learn so many things and perform many tasks in our life. Sometimes when we learn or
perform a new task, we find out that it has been influenced by some of our previous
learning or training. the learning of addition and subtraction helps the child in learning
multiplication and division. learning of mathematics helps in solving the numerical
problems in physics. Similarly, if one has learnt to play tennis one finds it easier to learn to
play ping pong or badminton. in this way learning or training is one situation influences our
learning or performance in some other situation. this influence usually refers to the carry
over of learning from one task is transferred or carried over to other tasks not only the
learning of the tricks of a trade or the knowledge and skills acquired in a particular school
subject is transferred to other situations. But, Also the habits, infrastructure and attitude
get transferred and try to influence the activities of the individual in future.

Definition:

1. Crow and crow: “They carry over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of
knowledge or of skills from one learning area to another usually is transferred to as
the transfer of training”. (1973)
 2. “Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training, and habits acquired in one
situation to another situation”

Types of transfer:

There is no guarantee that learning in one situation or in one field will always help the
learning in another situation or field. sometimes the learning of one task creates difficulty
in performing or learning another task. Having learn to pronounce PUT correctly. in this way,
transfer of training or learning also involves the possibilities of negative and adverse effects
besides The positive and favourable ones. Consequently, transfer is set to have the 3
following forms:

1. Positive transfer
2. Negative transfer and
3. Zero transfer

Transfer is set to be positive when something previously learned benefits performance or

learning in a new situation. Similarly, when something previously learned hinders
performance or learning in a new situation, we call it a negative transfer. In case the
previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new
situation, there is said to be zero transfer from the previous situation to a new one.

sometimes it is also possible that some previous learning may partly help and partly
interfere with the performance or learning in a new situation. In learning to play a game or
tennis, for example, a person learns so many things which are likely to be transferred in
learning to play baseball.

Theories of transfer:

Theory of generalization by Charles Judd:

This advocates the transfer of generalization in a new situation in place of identical

elements as suggested by thorndike. this theory says that as a result of certain experiences
and individual may arrive at some conclusions or generalisations in the form of general
rules, law of principles like “In touching the fire, we get burnt” “The green or unripe fruits are
sour or bitter in taste”. It is these generalisations, principles or rules that are put to use
(through the transfer process) By the individual in the coming new situation.

the transfer of training or learning can be explained on the basis of the theory of idea
forwarded by W.C Bagley. According to this theory, transfer of learning or training Takes
place in the form of ideas. the experiences we have, the generalization or conclusion we
arrive at, all do transfer if they are imbedded as ideas of same value or desirable by the
individuals. for example, as experimentally demonstrated by Begley (1922) The ideal of
neatness developed on the basis of stress lead on doing things quite neatly in school is
likely to be transferred in performing all other activities in a quite need and clean way.
Similarly, the attitudes and values like love for wisdom and honesty, thirst for knowledge,
tolerance for others opinion, spirit of inquiry etc. When inculcated in children, in general, as
ideas and not simply in one area or at one time in one situation, are likely to be transferred
to situation outside the school. therefore if we wish to positive transfer from one situation
to another we must strive for the formation of general attitude for an ideal.

Applications of learning:

The application of learning is the process of actively applying acquired knowledge, skills,
and theories to real world situations, problems, and tasks to achieve a desired outcome or
deepen understanding.

it involves practical experience, problem solving, project work, discussions and using
educational tools to connect classroom learning with practical contexts. This approach
enhances retention, fosters critical thinking, and improves overall performance and
personal development in various domains, from education to career advancement

In education:

1. Application based learning: This teaching philosophy focuses on students

applying models, theories, and skills to solve real world problems, creative
projects, and practical tasks.
2. Experiential learning: Students learn by doing through activities like
experiments, speechs, and immersions in practical aspects of lessons,
leading to better problem solving, creativity and teamwork.
3. Active learning: Teachers create strategies that encourage students to
actively engage with material, ask questions, participate in discussions, and
practice skills in a stimulated or real environment.
4. Educational apps: Technology driven applications provide interactive
activities, simulations, an access to information, making learning more
engaging and allowing students to practice skills in a customised way.

An example at workplace: Learning in the flow of work: This strategy involves Providing
readily available learning resources at the point of need, enabling employees to access
immediate, on-demand knowledge.

Performance support tools such as learning aids and micro learning videos provides
employees with immediate support and facilitate the application of new knowledge to their
daily tasks.
 Real world application; companies see return or investment when employees apply newly
learned concepts to their work, fostering deeper learning and increased motivation.

Benefits of applying learning:

1. Deeper understanding: Applying concepts to practice helps cement knowledge and

lead to a more profound understanding than passive learning.
2. improved performance: Individuals who can apply what they have learned and
better equipped to perform tasks and solve problems in their studies or work.
3. skill development: It fosters crucial skills like critical thinking, problem solving,
teamwork, communication and leadership.
4. Motivation and confidence: Successfully applying knowledge in practical situation
boosts confidence and provides the motivation to continue learning throughout life.
5. personal and carrier growth: The ability to apply learning is essential for personal
development, career Advancement and adapting to a constantly changing world.

The application of learning involves the practical utilization of acquired knowledge and
skills within real-world contexts, with the objectives of achieving desired outcomes or
enhancing comprehension.

This is a crucial sign of effective learning, indicating a student’s ability to move beyond rote
memorization and apply concepts in new contexts, solve problems, and build upon
existing knowledge. This may include hands-on activities, research projects, or the direct
application of learned skills in a professional environment, thus bridging the divide
between theory and practice.

Application of learning works:

A) Bridging Theory and practice: Applied learning connects classroom

knowledge with real world experience, shows students how theories translate
into tangible actions and results.

B) Enhancing comprehension: By putting knowledge to use students deepen

their understanding and reinforce what they have learned, helping them to retain
information for longer periods

C) Developing new skills: True application, students not only use existing skills
but also develop new ones by navigating novel situations and creative
challenges.

D) Transferring knowledge: Successful application is often a form of transfer of

learning, where students take knowledge from one situation and apply it
effectively to a different, often new, situations.
An example of applied learning is a flight simulator. it allows pilots to gain applied
knowledge of emergency situations without actually experiencing a plane crash.

applied learning theories directly influence of classroom experience in a variety of ways

such as: Providing students with structure and a comfortable, steady environment. helping
educators, administrators, students, and parents align on goals and outcomes.