Lecture 16: Sexual life cycles

and Meiosis 2

Mohamed Elhadidy, Ph.D.

.
Mitosis: A Recap
 What is Meiosis?
• Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four
daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell.

• The main purpose of meiosis is the production of

gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs.

• When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the

two haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete
diploid set: a new genome.
 Meiosis

• Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the

replication of chromosomes (interphase)

• Meiosis takes place in two consecutive cell

divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II

• The two cell divisions result in four

daughter cells, rather than the two
daughter cells in mitosis.

• Each daughter cell has only half as many

chromosomes as the parent cell.
 The Stages of Meiosis

• Interphase (DNA replication)

• Meiosis I occurs in four phases:

 prophase I
 metaphase I
 anaphase I
 telophase I and cytokinesis

• Meiosis II also occurs in four phases:

 prophase II
 metaphase II
 anaphase II
 telophase II and cytokinesis

• Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.

 Interphase

• Interphase is a time for the cell to

prepare for meiosis and part of this
preparation involves doubling the
number of chromosomes the cell
contains.
 Meiosis I- Prophase I

• In early prophase I, each chromosome pairs with its homolog and crossing over
occurs.

• X-shaped regions called chiasmata are sites of crossovers.

• The nonsister chromatids are broken at precisely corresponding positions

• A zipper-like structure called the synaptonemal complex holds the homologs

together tightly.

• During synapsis, DNA breaks are repaired, joining DNA from one nonsister
chromatid to the corresponding segment of another.
 Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I

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 Metaphase I

• In metaphase I, pairs of homologs line up at the

metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing
each pole.

• Microtubules from one pole are attached to the

kinetochore of one chromosome of each pair.
 Anaphase I

• In anaphase I, pairs of homologous

chromosomes separate.

• One chromosome of each pair

moves toward opposite poles,
guided by the spindle apparatus.

• Sister chromatids remain attached at

the centromere and move as one
unit toward the pole.
 Telophase I and Cytokinesis

• In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the

cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two sister
chromatids.

• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously,

forming two haploid daughter cells.

• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant

cells, a cell plate forms.

• No chromosome replication (interphase) occurs

between the end of meiosis I and the beginning
of meiosis II because the chromosomes are
already replicated.
 MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

and Cytokinesis

Centrosome Sister
(with Kinetochore chromatids
centriole (at centromere) remain
Sister pair) attached
chroma- Chiasmata
tids
Spindle Kinetochore
micro- microtubules
tubules

Cleavage
Homologous furrow
Pair of Fragments chromosomes
homo- of nuclear separate
envelope Metaphase
logous plate
chromo-
somes Centromere
BioFlix: Meiosis
 Meiosis II - Prophase II

• In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms

• In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still

composed of two chromatids) move toward
the metaphase plate
 Metaphase II

• In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are

arranged at the metaphase plate.

• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two

sister chromatids of each chromosome are no
longer genetically identical.

• The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach

to microtubules extending from opposite
poles.
 Anaphase II

• In anaphase II, the sister chromatids

separate.

• The sister chromatids of each

chromosome now move as two newly
individual chromosomes toward
opposite poles.
 Telophase II and Cytokinesis

• In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at

opposite poles.

• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin

decondensing.

• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm.

• At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter

cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated
chromosomes.

• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from

the others and from the parent cell.
 MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

and Cytokinesis

Sister chromatids
separate Haploid daughter
cells forming
 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically
identical to the parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid),
producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell

• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis I
 Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes physically
connect and exchange genetic information

 Homologous pairs at the metaphase plate

 Separation of homologs during anaphase I

 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma MEIOSIS I

Prophase Prophase I
Chromosome Chromosome
Duplicated Pair of
duplication duplication
chromosome 2n = 6 duplicated
homologs
Individual Pairs of
Metaphase homologous Metaphase I
chromosomes
line up. chromosomes
line up.
Anaphase Anaphase I
Sister chromatids Homologs
Telophase separate. Telophase I
separate.

Daughter
Sister cells of
meiosis I
chromatids MEIOSIS II
2n 2n separate.
Daughter cells n n n n
of mitosis Daughter cells of meiosis II
• Sister chromatid cohesion allows sister chromatids to stay together through
meiosis I

• In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of metaphase.

• In meiosis, cohesins are cleaved along the chromosome arms in anaphase I

(separation of homologs) and at the centromeres in anaphase II (separation of
sister chromatids).
 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles
contributes to evolution

• Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA) are the original source of genetic

diversity.

• Mutations create different versions of genes called alleles.

• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction produces genetic variation.

 Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring

• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for

most of the variation that arises in each generation.

• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:

 Independent assortment of chromosomes
 Crossing over
 Random fertilization
 Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis.

• In independent assortment, each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and

paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs.

• The number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently

into gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number.

• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 million (223) possible combinations of
chromosomes.
 Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4
 Crossing Over
• Crossing over produces recombinant chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited from
each parent.

• Crossing over contributes to genetic variation by combining DNA from two parents into a
single chromosome.

• In humans, an average of one to three crossover events occurs per chromosome.

Prophase I Nonsister chromatids
of meiosis held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs 1 Synapsis and
crossing over
Chiasma
2 Movement to
the metaphase I
plate
Centromere
3 Breakdown of
TEM
Anaphase I proteins holding
sister chromatid
arms together

Anaphase II

Daughter
cells
Recombinant chromosomes
 Animation: Genetic Variation

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 Random Fertilization

• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
(unfertilized egg).

• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million possible chromosome combinations from
independent assortment) produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid
combinations.
 The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation
Within Populations

• Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the

environment.

• Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic variation in a population, which originates

from mutations.

• Animals that always reproduce asexually are quite rare.

• Organisms like the bdelloid rotifer increase their genetic diversity through incorporation of
foreign DNA from the environment.
QUESTIONS?