Class Notes: Cells
1. Introduction to Cells
● Cells are the basic unit of life.
● All living things are made of one or more cells.
● Cells carry out all necessary functions for life (growth, energy use, reproduction,
response to environment).
● Study of cells = cell biology / cytology.
2. Cell Theory
● Three main points of cell theory:
○ All living things are made of cells.
○ Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
○ New cells come from pre-existing cells.
● Developed by scientists:
○ Robert Hooke (1665): First to observe "cells" in cork.
○ Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Improved microscopes, saw living cells (bacteria,
protists).
○ Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann (1830s): Stated plants and animals
are made of cells.
○ Rudolf Virchow (1855): All cells come from other cells.
3. Types of Cells
A. Prokaryotic Cells
● Simple, small cells with no nucleus.
● DNA floats freely in cytoplasm (in nucleoid region).
● No membrane-bound organelles.
● Examples: bacteria, archaea.
● Key structures:
○ Cell wall (most bacteria)
○ Cell membrane
○ Cytoplasm
○ Ribosomes (make proteins)
○ Flagella / pili (movement & attachment)
B. Eukaryotic Cells
● Larger, more complex cells with a nucleus.
● Have membrane-bound organelles.
● Can be unicellular or multicellular.
● Examples: plants, animals, fungi, protists.
● Key structures: nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.
4. Cell Structures & Organelles
A. Common to All Cells
● Cell membrane (plasma membrane):
○ Surrounds the cell, controls movement of substances in & out.
○ Made of phospholipid bilayer with proteins.
● Cytoplasm: Jelly-like fluid that holds organelles.
● Ribosomes: Tiny organelles that make proteins.
B. Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells
● Nucleus:
○ Control center of cell.
○ Contains DNA (chromosomes).
○ Surrounded by nuclear envelope with pores.
● Mitochondria:
○ "Powerhouse" of the cell.
○ Converts glucose into ATP (energy).
○ Site of cellular respiration.
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
○ Rough ER: Has ribosomes, makes proteins.
○ Smooth ER: Makes lipids, detoxifies.
● Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body):
○ Packages, modifies, and ships proteins/lipids.
● Lysosomes:
○ Contain digestive enzymes.
○ Break down waste, old cell parts.
● Cytoskeleton:
○ Network of fibers for structure & movement.
C. Plant Cell Special Structures
● Cell Wall: Rigid layer (cellulose) for support & protection.
● Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll, site of photosynthesis.
● Large Central Vacuole: Stores water, nutrients; helps maintain shape.
5. Cell Specialization
● In multicellular organisms, cells can differentiate into specialized types.
● Examples:
○ Red blood cells: Carry oxygen.
○ Nerve cells: Transmit signals.
○ Muscle cells: Contract for movement.
○ Plant root cells: Absorb water/minerals.
6. Transport Across Cell Membrane
A. Passive Transport (no energy)
● Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high → low concentration.
● Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.
● Facilitated diffusion: Uses transport proteins, still no energy.
B. Active Transport (requires energy/ATP)
● Moves molecules from low → high concentration.
● Example: Sodium-potassium pump.
C. Bulk Transport
● Endocytosis: Cell takes in material (engulfing).
● Exocytosis: Cell pushes material out.
7. Cell Energy
● Cellular Respiration (mitochondria):
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
● Photosynthesis (chloroplasts in plants):
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Sunlight → Glucose + Oxygen
8. Cell Division
A. Mitosis (body cells)
● One cell → two identical daughter cells.
● Steps: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT).
● Used for growth & repair.
B. Meiosis (sex cells)
● Produces gametes (sperm/egg).
● One cell → four unique haploid cells.
● Creates genetic variation.
9. Summary / Key Takeaways
● Cells are the foundation of all living organisms.
● Prokaryotic = simple, no nucleus.
● Eukaryotic = complex, nucleus + organelles.
● Organelles each have specialized jobs.
● Cell membranes regulate transport.
● Energy is made in mitochondria (respiration) or chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
● Cells divide by mitosis (growth/repair) or meiosis (reproduction).
