Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
P.E.S. College of Engineering
Mandya – 571 401, Karnataka
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Course Title: Applied Physics
Course Code: P22PHCS102/202
Unit – IV
Photonics Notes
2024-25
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
Syllabus
Unit-III: Photonics 8 Hrs
Lasers - Definition and Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter, Expression for
energy density (derivation). Requisites of a Laser system. Conditions for Laser action. Principle,
Construction and working of Semiconductor LASER. Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer.
Numerical problems.
Optical Fibers - Propagation mechanism, Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture (derivation),
fractional index change, modes of propagation, Number of modes and V-parameter, Types of optical
fibers. Attenuation and expression for attenuation coefficient (no derivation), Applications: Point to point
telecommunication. Numerical problems.
Self-learning component: Construction and working of carbon dioxide laser
Practical component: Diffraction Grating and Optical fiber
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
LASERS
Introduction:
LASER is an optical device that amplifies light. LASER is the acronym of Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Characteristics of LASER: Laser device is a source of highly intensive, highly directional, highly
monochromatic and highly parallel coherent beam of light produced by stimulated emission.
Laser action is achieved by creating population inversion between a pair of energy levels. Production of
laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with matter.
Interaction of radiation with matter:
The working principle of laser is based on the phenomenon of
interaction of radiation with matter. A material medium is composed of
identical atoms or molecules each of which is characterized by a set of
discrete allowed energy states E1 and E2 as shown in figure (1). An
atom can move from one energy state to another when it receives or
E E1
releases an amount of energy 2
h E2 E1
h h
equal to the energy to the energy difference between those two states E E2 E1 .
There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation with matter can take place. They are,
(1) Induced Absorption, (2) Spontaneous Emission, and (3) Stimulated Emission.
(1)Induced Absorption: “Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom as a
result of which the atom makes a transition from a ground state to an excited state, wherein the
difference in energy of the two states is equal to energy of the photon”.
Let E1 and E2 be two energy levels, in
which E1 corresponds to lower energy
(figure (a)). Let a photon having an energy
∆E equal to (E2-E1) be incident on the atom,
then the atom will make a transition to the
higher energy state E2 (figure (b)) by the
absorption of the photon. As a result, its
energy becomes E1+∆E = E2.
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
In such a condition, atom is said to have made transition to the excited state and is indicated as atom*.
This is called Induced absorption and could be represented as
atom photon atom*
(2)Spontaneous Emission: “Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when an atom in an
excited state makes a transition to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency”.
Consider an atom in the excited state.
Excited states with higher energy are
inherently unstable because of a natural
tendency of atoms to attain the lowest energy
configuration. Normally the excited atoms
exist in the excited state E2 for about 10-8
seconds (figure (c)) and tend to return to the
lower state E1 by giving up the excess energy h E2 E1 in the form of spontaneous emission. The
energy of the atom is then given by E 1 = E2 - ∆E as shown in figure (d).
Due to spontaneous emission, the photons are emitted in all possible directions. Two such photons
which are spontaneously emitted by two atoms under identical conditions may not have any phase
similarities, and even they may not come in same direction. Hence they are incoherent in nature and
the process is denoted as
atom* atom photon
(3)Stimulated Emission: “Stimulated emission of a photon by an atom under the influence of a passing
photon (stimulating photon) of just the right energy, due to which the atom make a transition from a
higher energy state to a lower energy state. The photon thus emitted is called the stimulated photon and
it will have the same energy, same phase and direction of movement as that of the passing photon
called the stimulating photon”.
Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ∆E precisely equal to (E2 – E1)
interact with the atom by passing in its
vicinity as shown in figure (e). Under
such stimulation, the atom emits a
photon and transits to the lower energy
state. The two photons travel in
exactly the same direction, and with
exactly the same energy. The
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
electromagnetic waves associated with the two photons will have identical phase and thus they are
coherent as shown in figure (f). The process can be represented as
atom* photon atom ( photon photon)
This kind of emission is responsible for laser action.
Einstein Co-efficient:
Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit
per volume in the states of energies E 1 and E2 respectively. N1 and N2 are called the number density of
atoms in the states 1 and 2. Let radiation with a continuous spectrum of frequencies is incident on the
atomic system. Let Uγ be the energy density/unit volume of frequency γ and U γdγ be the energy
density/unit volume of the system for the radiations of frequencies lie in the range γ and γ+dγ.
Let us consider the absorption and the two emission process case by case.
(i) Case of Induced Absorption: In the case of induced absorption, an atom in level E 1 can go to the
E2 E1
level E2, when it absorbs a radiation of suitable frequency (figure.5).
h
The number of such induced absorptions/unit time/unit volume is called rate of induced absorption.
The rate of induced absorption depends upon, (a) the number density of lower energy state. i.e., N1 and
(b) the energy density i.e., Uγ
Rate of absorption α N1 Uγ
Rate of absorption = B12 N1 Uγ 1
Where, B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein Co-efficient of Induced absorption.
(ii) Case of Spontaneous Emission: In the case of spontaneous emission, an atom in higher energy level
E2 under goes transition to the lower energy level E 1 voluntarily by emitting a photon (figure.5). Since
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
it is voluntary transition, it is independent of the energy density of any frequency in the incident
radiation.
The number of such spontaneous emissions/unit time/unit volume is called rate of spontaneous
emission. Which is proportional to only the number density in the higher energy state i.e., N 2
Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2 2
Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein Co-efficient of Spontaneous Emission.
(iii) Case of Stimulated Emission: In the case of stimulated emission, the system requires an external
E E1
photon of appropriate frequency 2 , to stimulate the atom for the corresponding downward
h
transition, and thereby cause emission of stimulated photons (figure.5).
The number of such stimulated emissions/unit time/unit volume is called rate of stimulated emission.
The rate of stimulated emission depends upon, (a) the number density of higher energy state. i.e., N 2
and (b) the energy density i.e., Uγ
Rate of stimulated emission α N2 Uγ
Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ 3
Where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein Co-efficient of Stimulated Emission.
Relationship between the Einstein Co-efficient (Expression for energy density of radiation):
Let the System be in thermal equilibrium, which means that the total energy of the system remains
unchanged in spite of the interaction that is taking place between itself and the incident radiation.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of Absorption = Rate of Spontaneous emission + Rate Stimulated emission
From equations (1), (2) & (3), we have
B12 N1U A21 N 2 B21 N 2U B12 N1 B21N 2 U A21N 2 U A21 N 2
B12 N1 B21N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get,
A
U 21
1
4
B21 B12 N1 1
B21N 2
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
But, by Boltzmann-law, we have
E E h h
2 1 N1
N 2 N1e KT
N 2 N1e KT
e KT 5
N2
Now, by substituting equation (5) in equation (4), we have
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A 1
U 21 h
B21 B12 KT
e 1
B21
According to Planck’s law, the equation for energy density U is given by
8h 3 1
U h 7
c 3 KT
e 1
Now, comparing equation (6) and equation (7), term by term on the basis of positional identity, we have
A21 8h 3 B
3 & 12 1 or B12 B21
B21 c B21
This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated emission.
Because of the above identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and A21 and B21 can be represented simply
as A and B equation (6) can be rewritten.
At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is
A 1
U h
B KT
e 1
Requisites of Laser systems:
The requisites of Laser system are: (1) Laser cavity, (2) Active medium and (3) An excitation source for
pumping action
(i) Laser Cavity: A laser cavity consists of two opposing plane-
parallel mirrors M1 and M2 with the active material placed in
between them as shown in figure (8). These mirrors are
generally coated with multilayer dielectric material to reduce
the absorption loss in the mirrors. A sequence of quantum-
wave 4 layers of alternate high and low refractive index materials are coated on these mirrors. All
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
these waves reflected at alternate interfaces are in phase and add constructively. Photon (particle)
moving in a particular direction represents a light wave moving in the same direction. Thus, the two
mirrors along with the active medium from a laser cavity.
(ii) Active medium: The active medium contains atoms which
can emit electromagnetic radiation or laser light by
stimulated emission. The active medium can be in any state
of matter: solid, liquid, gas or plasma. The active medium
contains two types of waves. One type of wave moves
towards right and other to the left. These two types of
waves may interfere constructively or destructively
depending upon their phase difference.
Let L be the distance between two mirrors. For constructive
interference take place, the value L should be an integral
n
multiple of half wave length, i.e., L where ‘n’ is an
2
integer > 0 and λ is the wave length of the laser light.
2L
n
The standing wave pattern is established within the cavity is said to be resonant at the above
wavelength.
(iii) Excitation Source: The excitation source provides energy in an appropriate form for pumping the
atoms to higher energy levels. As a result we get population inversion in the active medium which
emits laser beam.
Condition for Laser action:
(i) Meta stable state: In a real physical system, the
population inversion condition doesn’t exist under normal
conditions due to the condition stipulated in the Boltzmann
factor. However, it is possible to achieve the population
inversion condition in certain active systems which have a
Meta stable state.
Consider three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a quantum
system as shown in figure (6). The state E1 is the ground state; E2 & E3 are excited state. Let the atom
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
in the ground state be excited from E 1 to E3, when light of frequency E3 E1 is incident on them and
h
it stays there over a brief interval of time not exceeding 10 -8 sec, and then returns to one of the lower
energy states E2 undergoing spontaneous emission. But E 2 being a Meta stable state, the atoms get
trapped in the state E2 and stay for a very long time, which is of the order of 10 -3 to 10-2 sec. Because
of pumping there will be larger accumulation of atoms at E 2 and the population of atoms at E1 keeps on
decreasing. This property helps in achieving the population inversion in the state E 2.
Now a photon of energy h E2 E1 can trigger stimulated emission of atoms at E 2 and the condition
for laser is achieved.
(ii) Population Inversion: Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a
particular higher state E2 is more than that of a specified lower energy state E 1.Let the atoms be
excited from E1 to E3 state (figure) by the supply of appropriate energy from an external source as
shown in figure (7). From the E3 state, the atoms undergo spontaneous downward transitions to E1 and
E2 states rapidly. In spite of new arrival of atoms, the population of E 1 level cannot increase because
of ongoing excitation of atoms to higher energy
level. But, since E2 is a metastable state, those
atoms which get into that state stay over a very
long duration, because of which the population
of E2 state increases steadily. Under these
conditions a stage will be reached where in the
population of E2 state over takes that of E1,
which is known as Population Inversion.
Once the population inversion of E2 exceeds that of E1, the stimulated emission outnumber the
spontaneous emission and soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of phase, wavelength and
direction, grow to a very large number which build up the laser light.
(iii) Pumping process: Optical pumping techniques are used in solid state lasers. A light source
such as a flash discharge tube is used for pumping. The process of supplying the energy to the
medium with an ability to excite atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state is called
pumping. There are number of techniques for pumping a collection of atom to an inverted state
(excited state).
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
Principle, Construction and Working of Semiconductor LASER:
A semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device which emits light when it is
forward biased. A p-n junction provides the active medium. Stimulated emission can be achieved by
forming a homojunction from very heavily doped p and n materials.
Principle: In the normal state of intrinsic semiconductor, the valence band lies at a lower energy E v
which is occupied by a large number of electrons and a small number of holes. The conduction band E c is
sparsely occupied by electrons and in between conduction band and valence band there exists the energy
gap Eg. At some point of time, the transition of an electron from conduction band to valence band take
place and meets the holes forming electron-hole recombination with release of heat energy. This is the
basic mechanism involved in the emission of radiation.
The semiconducting materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) etc., are used
for making lasers and these materials are called direct band gap Semiconducting materials. In these
materials energy is not lost due to dissipation by lattice and the energy released in the process of electron-
hole recombination lies in the optical region. The p-n junction is heavily doped and a large current is
made to flow through the junction to create population inversion. Laser can be obtained using a resonant
cavity for such a junction.
Construction: The schematic diagram of semiconductor
diode laser is shown in figure (9).It consists of a heavily
doped n and p regions. The n-region is obtained by
doping with tellurium and the p-region is obtained by
doping with zinc. The doping concentration is of the
order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3. The p-n region
lies in a horizontal plane through the centre. The top and
bottom faces of a diode are metalized and they are
provided with ohimc contacts to pass current through the diode. The front and rear faces are well polished
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the junction. The other two opposite faces are
roughened to prevent the lasing action in that direction. The active region of a diode consists of a thin
layer of thickness 1μm.
Working: when a diode is in forward biased with a voltage that is nearly equal to the energy gap voltage
E g , electrons from the n-region and holes from p-region flow across the junction in sufficient
e
numbers and create a population inversion in the active region (figure (10)). Since semiconductor diode
has direct energy gap, high concentration of electron-hole recombination takes place in the transition
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
region and causes spontaneously emission of
photons. Since the doping is very high, the
number of charge carriers (holes and electrons)
will also be very large. A large number of
conduction electrons are available at room
temperature in n-region due to thermal
excitation. Similarly, a large number of holes are
also available in p-region. At normal conditions,
the concentration of electrons at the bottom of the conduction energy band will be lesser than at the top of
the valence energy band. Since recombination between the hole and electron is actually the transition of
electron from conduction to valence band, it is necessary to see that the population inversion is achieved
between these two energy levels.
When the current flowing through the forward biased diode is low, through recombination occurs, it will
lead to only spontaneous emission which occurs in all directions. As the current is slowly increased, a
threshold for lasing will be attained at which time an active region is formulated near the p-n junction
where the population inversion is achieved.
The narrow region where the state of population inversion is achieved is known as inversion or active
region. Thus the forward bias plays the role of pumping agent in semiconductor laser. Thus the electron-
hole recombination’s in the p-n junction cause emission of radiation of very narrow band width.
Engineering applications of Lasers:
(1)Bar code scanner: A bar code consists of a series of strips of white and black bars. Each strip has a
width of about 0.3 mm and the total width of the bar code is about 3 cm. By simple scanning complete
information about the product can be obtained. A typical scanning speed is about 200 meter per
second. In the bar code scanner, a low power (~
0.5mW) laser beam is reflected by a rotating
polygon mirror to scan along a line. When the
laser beam hits the bar code, the amount of
reflected light from the bar code is captured and
then the decoder converts the black and white
bars with the binary signals. These reflected light
signals (binary signals) are focused on a photo
detector, which converts the light signal to an
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
electrical signal. Further these electrical signals are then converted in to text data and are delivered to a
computer by the scanner.
In order to be able to scan the product in any arbitrary direction for ease of scanning, the laser beam is
made to scan in multiple directions by using multiple mirrors with the rotating polygon.
Advantages of laser barcode scanner:
1) The laser barcode scanner is used for non-contact scanning flexibly and efficiently.
2) The laser barcode scanner is the only choice when the scanning distance exceeds 30cm.
3) The density range of laser barcode scanner is wide, and it can scan irregular barcode surface or read
through glass or transparent adhesive paper, because it is non-contact reading, it will not damage
the barcode label.
4) The Human errors are minimized and eliminated while using barcode scanners, therefore they are
utilize and used in majority of the business globally.
5) The barcode readers are very accurate while collecting the data from sticker and labels therefore the
chances of making errors are neutralized.
(2) Laser Printer:
A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce images on paper by directing a
laser beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to
which toner (an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam conveys information
from the computer to a positively charged drum to become neutralized. From all those areas of drum
which become neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls by the drum, the toner is transferred
to the paper printing the letters or other graphics on the paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.
Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole page is loaded, it will be
printed. Many home-use laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print
approximately 21,000 lines per minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines.
Advantages of Laser Printer:
The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high quality
graphics & text.
Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
Laser printers are quite and do not produce disturbing sounds.
They are also capable to produce colour prints.
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Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – IV: Photonics PESCE, Mandya
Disadvantages of Laser Printer:
The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost; they are relatively costly as compared to other
printers.
The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the atmosphere.
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