GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
MODULE-3
Sensors and Display Systems
Electrochemical Sensors: Definition, Electrochemical Sensors – Potentiometric
Sensors: Theory, Principal, Instrumentation, Working and their application in
the estimation of iron. Conductometric Sensors: Theory, Principal,
Instrumentation, Working and their application (acid mixture Vs strong base)
and Optical Sensors: Theory, Principal, Instrumentation, Working and their
application in the estimation of Cu ions.
Display Systems: Liquid Crystals (LC’s) – Introduction, classification,
difference between thermotropic and lyotropic LC, properties and application of
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s), molecular ordering in nematic, smectic and
columnar type liquid crystals, Photoactive and electroactive materials
(definition and applications), construction, working and applications of Light
emitting electrochemical cells. Nanomaterials (QLED’s) and organic materials
(OLED’s) used in optoelectronic devices.
Electrochemical Sensors
Sensors: A sensor is a device that detects the change in the environment and responds to
some output on the other system.
A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable analog voltage (or sometimes a
digital signal) converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for reading or further
processing.
Electrochemical Sensors: Electrochemical sensors are devices that convert chemical
information into an electrical signal through electrochemical processes (redox reactions).
Types of Electrochemical Sensors:
There are three types of electrochemical sensors:
1. Potentiometric Sensors: Measures the potential difference (voltage) between a working
electrode and a reference electrode at zero current.
Example: pH sensors.
2. Amperometry Sensors: Measures the current produced by a redox reaction at the working
electrode surface when a potential is applied.
Example: Glucose sensors.
3. Conductometric Sensors: Measures the electrical conductivity of a solution due to ionic
movement.
4. Optical Sensors: Optical sensors convert light into electrical signals to detect and measure
changes in light patterns, intensity, and wavelength.
DR. ANU K S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY 1
GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Potentiometric Sensors:
Theory: It is an electro analytical technique in which the amount of a substance in the
solution is determined from emf measurements between two electrodes thet are dipped in the
analyte solution. Out of two electrodes, one act as indicator electrode and the other acts as
reference electrode.
When a metal M is immersed in a solution of its own ions, the electrode potential is given by
Nernst equation,
E = E0 + 0.0591/n log [Mn+]
As it can observed from the above equation, it can be observed that the emf of the solution
depends on the concentration of the metal ions in the solution. When titrant is added to the
analyte solution in beaker, the concentration of the analyte solution changes and there by the
potential also changes. Initially change in potential will be small. At equivalence point, there
will be steep rise in the potential. Beyond the equivalence point there will be no significant
change in potential. The equivalence point is determined by plotting a graph of potential v/s
voume of titrant.
Intrumentation:
A Potentiometer consists of an indicator electrode, a reference electrode and a device for
measuring potential. The indicator electrode responds rapidly to the changes in the potential
due to change in the concentration of analyte solution due to addition of titrant from the
burette.
Applications of Potentiometric titrations:
Determination of FAS by Potentiometric method.
Add one test tube of dilute sulphuric acid to the given FAS solution. Immerse the platinum
electrode and calomel electrode assembly in it. Connect the electrode assembly to a
potentiometer and measure the potential. Add potassium dichromate solution from a burette
in the increments of 0.5mL, mix well and measure the potential after each addition. Calculate
the normality and amount of ferrous ion in the given solution.
Conductometric Sensors:
Theory: Conductometry is the measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution. It
works on the principle of Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
applied potential (E) and inversely proportional to the resistance R of the conductor.
i.e., I=E/R
DR. ANU K S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY 2
GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
The recirpocal of resistance is called conductance i.e., C=1/R.
Specific Conductance: It is defined as the conductance of the solution present between two
parallel electrodes of 1cm2 area of cross section and kept 1cm apart. It is given by,
Where, l/a is the cell constant.
R is the resistance of the solution.
The specific conductance of an electrolyte solution at a given temperature depends on the
ions present and increases with their number. Conductance measurements are used to
determine the equivalence point in acid base titrations. There is a sudden change in
conductance of the solution after the equivalence point. The equivalence point is determined
by plotting a graph of conductane v/s titer value.
Instrumentation:
A conductometer consists of two platinum electrodes each with unit area of cross section
placed with 1cm apart. The electrodes are dipped in the analyte solution taken in the beaker
and both the electrodes are connected to a conductometer. The titrant from the burette is
added in increments of 0.5mL increments into the beaker and solution is mixed well and its
conductance is measured.
Advantages of conductometric titrations:
1. Mixture of acids can be titrated accurately.
2. It gives accurate values where potentiometric method of titration fails.
3. By this method coloured solution can be accurately titrated.
4. Very weak acids can be titrated.
Applications:
Conductometric estimation of HCl and CH3COOH in a given acid mixture.
Pipette out 50mL of given strong acid mixture into a beaker. Immerse conductivity cell in it.
Connect the cell to a conductometer. And measure the conductance. Add 1N NaOH from the
burette in increments of 0.5mL and measure the conductance after each addition.
Plot the graph of conductance against volume of NaOH and determine the equivalence points.
From the normality and volume of NaOH, calculate the normality of HCl and CH3COOH in
the given solution. Calculate the amount of HCl and CH3COOH in the given solution using
the normality.
Optical Sensors: Colorimetry
Theory: It is an analytical technique used for determining the concentration of compound in
a solution. This experiment is suitable for the solution which is coloured itself or gives
DR. ANU K S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY 3
GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
coloured compound when mixed with suitable reagent. The colour of the solution is a
measure of the concentration of solution which can be determined by using calorimeter.
The calorimeter works on the principle of Beer-Lamberts law which states that “when a beam
of monochromatic light is passed through a transparent medium, the rate of decrease in the
intensity of transmitted light is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light,
concentration of the solution as well as the thickness of the medium”.
If I0 is the intensity of the incident light and It is the intensity of transmitted light then, the
fraction of light transmitted through the solution is It/I0, which is know as transmittance(T).
Then, is called absorbance (A) or optical density.
The relation between absorbance (A) and concentration (C) is expressed in moles/dm3 and
path length (l) is expressed in cm and is given by Beer-Lambert’s law.
A= = ƐCl
Where, Ɛ is the molar absorption coefficient, a constant for a given substance at a given
wavelength.
If the path length (l) is kept constant, the absorbance is directly proportional to the
concentration. Hence, a plot of absorbance v/s concentration gives a straight line.
Instrumentation:
Calorimeter consists of following parts:
1. A tungsten filament lamp as source of light.
2. A filter (coloured glass) which provides desired wavelength range where solution gives
maximum absorbance.
3. A sample cell.
4. A photo cell and recorder.
Light from the tungsten filament lamp is passed through the filter and made to fall on the
solution taken in a sample cell. The blank sample solution is placed and adjusted the
absorbance to zero. Then place the analyte solution and measure the absorbance.
Applications:
It is a versatile method of determining the concentration of solution. The solution
concentration is determined by using colorimeter.
Colorimetric estimation of copper.
DR. ANU K S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY 4
GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
When solution containing cupric ions is treated with ammonia solution, it forms a deep blue
coloured cuprammonium complex. The absorbance is measured at 620nm because it has
maximum absorbance at this wavelength.
3+
Cuprammonium complex
Procedure: Draw 2,4,6,8 and 10mL of given copper sulphate solution into separate 50mL
volumetric flask. Add 3mL of ammonia to each of them and also to the unknown solution or
test solution of unknown concentration. Dilute upto the mark with distilled water and mix
well. Measure the absorbance of each solution at 620nm. Then, plot a graph of absorbance
(OD) against concentration of copper and determine the concentration of copper in an
unknown solution.
DR. ANU K S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY 5
