UNIT 3

AGRICULTURE ECNOMICS AND CROP PRODUCTION

• Agricultural economics is an applied field of economics concerned
with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and
distribution of food and fiber products.
• Agricultural economics refers to all economic activities connected with
the control of living organisms, such as plants and animals.
• Cooperative Agriculture system/Cooperative Farming
A voluntary form of organization in which farmers and landless
cultivators shared their uneconomic holdings and other resources with a
view to facilitate the sustainable use of resources, economies of scale ,
and adopt scientific methods of cultivation.
• Features of Cooperative Farming
✓ Members pool their land, man-power and other resources into a single
unit.
✓Ownership of land continues to be with the individual members.
✓The society is formed voluntarily and is run on co-principles.
✓Members receive remuneration according to the work done and the land
contributed for joint cultivation.
✓Members will have the option to leave the organization.
• Classification of Cooperative Farming
oBetter-farming Society:- The main object of it is to educate and to
prepare the farmers to accept the new system of farming
oCo-operative Tenant Farming Society:- provides its members with
facilities such as finance, implements, seed, etc
oCo-operative joint Farming Society:to solve the problem of fragmentation
of land and the cultivation of uneconomic holdings.
oCo-operative Collective Farming Society:The society owns land or gets it
on lease and it is collectively cultivated by its members
• Advantage of Cooperative farming:-
1. provide planning instructions.
2. Development of democratic spirit.
3. Reduces the cost of production.
4. Increases agriculture production.
5. Achieves the economies of scale.
6. Accessibility of services and technology.
• Crop Insurance :Crop insurance is an insurance arrangement aiming at
reduce or prevent the financial losses suffered by the farmers due to
damage and destruction of their crops as a result of various production
risks.
• Objective
✓To provide insurance coverage and financial support to the farmers in the
event of prevented sowing & failure of any of the notified crop as a result
of natural calamities, pests & diseases
✓ To encourage the farmers to adopt progressive farming practices,
✓ To help stabilize farm incomes, particularly in disaster years.
• Kisan Credit Card
▪ Kisan Credit Card scheme was introduced by NDA Government in August
1998 with the aim to provide adequate and timely short-term credit needs
of farmers during the cropping season.
▪ It was first proposed by Finance Minister Yashwant Sinha
Objective & Rationale behind Kisan Credit Card Scheme
▪ The Kisan Credit Card scheme was launched to provide adequate, timely
and cost effective institutional credit from the banking system to the
farmers for their cultivation needs.
▪ Farmers can not only purchase inputs but also can withdraw cash from
this credit card for their input needs.
• Benefits of Kisan Credit Card Scheme
✓No need to apply for a loan for every crop.
✓ Assured availability of credit at any time enabling reduced interest
burden for the farmer.
✓Helps buy seeds, fertilizers at farmer’s convenience and choice. Helps
buy on cash-avail discount from dealers.
✓ Maximum credit limit based on agriculture income.
✓ Repayment only after harvest.
✓Minimum paper work and simplification of documentation for
withdrawing of funds from the bank.
✓ Flexibility to draw cash and buy inputs
• Features of Kisan Credit Card Scheme
✓Farmers eligible for production credit of Rs. 5000 or more are eligible for
issue of Kisan Credit Card.
✓Eligible farmers to be provided with a Kisan Credit Card and a pass book
or card-cum-pass book.
✓Card valid for 3 years subject to annual review
✓ Each withdrawal to be repaid within a maximum period of 12 months.
✓Security, margin, rate of interest, etc. as per RBI norms.
✓Withdrawals through slips/cheques accompanied by card and passbook.
• Agriculture Marketing
• Agricultural marketing. Agricultural marketing generally means the
marketing of agricultural products to the first handler.
• It includes all the activities associated with agricultural production
processing, and distribution to final consumers.
• Haats, is an open-air market that serves as a trading venue for local
people in rural areas and some towns of Nepal, India and Bangladesh.
• B. Package & practices like- Important varieties
1. RICE
Botanical Name:- Oryza sativa
Family: - Poaceae.
Origin:- Indo-Burma (South-eastern Asia)
➢ India is the second largest producer of rice after China but first in rice
area among world.
➢Climate: Suitable temperature for growth:- 25-30oC.
Suitable temperature for maturity:- 20-25oC.
➢Soil:- Clay to silt loam soil good for rice cultivation.
Rice can be cultivated in acidic soil.
Suitable pH range of soil for rice cultivation is 5.5-6.5.
crop Sowing time Harvesting time
Virippu ( autumn or first crop April – May September - october
season)
Mundakan ( winter or second September - october December-january
crop season)
Puncha (summer or third crop December – January March - april
season)
• Seed Rate:-
1. Broadcasting Method:- 100kg/ha.
2. By Seed drill:- 60kg/ha.
3. By nursery:- 30-40kg/ha.
4. For IR-8 and Jaya:- 40-45kg/ha.

broadcasting
Seed drill method By nursery
• Cultivation Methods in Rice Farming:-
There are 4 methods of cultivation practiced in paddy farming.
1. Broadcasting method:- In this method, seeds are sown by hand and this
method is suitable in areas where the soil is not fertile and lands are
dry.
2. Drilling method:- In this method, Ploughing of land and sowing of seeds
can be carried out by 2 persons.
3. Transplantation method:-
✓ Wet-Bed Method:- The wet-bed nursery is mainly used in areas where
there is enough water.
✓The best seedling age for transplanting is about 15-21 days.
✓Dry-bed method:- The nursery is prepared in dry soil conditions. Seed
beds of convenient dimensions are prepared .
The advantage of the dry-bed method is that seedlings are short and
strong, with a longer root system compared with the wet-bed method.
✓Dapog method (mats):- It is developed by IRRI, Philippines.Dapog
nurseries can be located anywhere on a flat firm surface but water
supply/control should be very reliable.
✓Preparing the Nursery and Starting Seedlings (System of Rice
Intensification):-
1. Rice seeds should first be soaked in temperate water for 24 hours.
2. Next, put the seeds in a sack and place it in a warm compost pile
3. The seedbed should be prepared as closely as possible to the field that
will be planted,
4 Compost should be mixed into the soil of the seedbed
5 Broadcast the pre-germinated seeds onto the bed at a rate of about 200
grams for every 3 square meters, and then cover the seeds with a fine layer
of soil.
6 Water the seedbed every day in the late afternoon, or as often as needed
to maintain a moderate level of soil moisture.
7 Transplanting should be done when the seedlings have just two leaves --
and before they have more. This usually occurs between 8 and 15 days.
Verities:-
1. TN-1:- It is first dwarf variety of rice.
2. IR-8:- It is first high yielding variety. It is resistant to bacterial leaf spot. 3.
Jaya:- It is first dwarf variety of rice in India. It is high yielding variety. It is known
as Indian merical rice. It is resistance of Blast.
4. Jagannath & Sattari:- It is developed by mutation.
5. IR-8 and CSR-10:- Tolerant to saline and alkaline soil.
6. Sabarmati:
Manure and fertilizer: -
• FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
• N: - 100kg/ha
• P2O5: - 60kg/ha
• K2O: -50kg/ha
• Zinc Sulphate: 25 Kg/ha
• Water management:-
Maintain water level at about 1.5 cm during transplanting. Thereafter
increase it gradually to about 5 cm until maximum tillering stage. Drain
water 13 days before harvest.
• Weeds and their management
➢Common aquatic weed in paddy field

Water hyacinth Pistia Cyperus iria Echinochola crusgalli

• Weed Control Practices:
➢ herbicide Propanil:- 3 to 4 kg/ha. Malinate 2-4 kg/ha are effective selective
post emergence herbicides against annual grasses.
➢Flooding:- To prevent aquatic weeds, alternate and drainage is essential.
• Harvesting, Yield and Storage:- The right stage for harvesting as
commonly understood by laymen is when panicles turn into golden yellow
and the grains contain about 20 percent moisture.

paddy field
• For safe storage, grain should be cleaned and dried well in sun for a few
days so that moisture content of grain comes down to 10percent.
• Insect and pest in paddy field
• Fungal disease
Disease Causative organism
Blast Pyricularia oryzae
Brown Spot Hinthosporium oryzelmae
Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani
Narrow brown leaf spot Cercospora janseana
False smut Ustilaginoidea virens

• Bacterial disease
Disease Causative organism
Bacterial leaf blight Xanthomonas oryzae
Bacterial leaf streak Xanthomonas oryzae

• Viral disease
Disease Causative organism
Rice Tungro Disease Rice tungro bacilliform virus
Rice Grassy stunt disease Rice grassy stunt tenuivirus
 2 Wheat
Botanical name:-
Bread Wheat: -Triticum aestivum
Family: - Poaceae.
Origin:- South-Western Asia
➢India is the second largest producer of wheat after China.
➢Highest production of wheat in India is in Uttar Pradesh and productivity is of
Punjab.
➢Wheat is self-pollinated crops.
• Climate: - Wheat is grown in hot and sub-tropical climate
➢ The ideal temperature for germination of wheat seeds is 20-25
degrees Celsius.
➢The suitable temperature for vegetative growth is 16- 22 ° C.
➢14-15 ° C is suitable during the maturity of wheat.
• Soil:- Sandy loam and black soils are suitable for good wheat cultivation.
The appropriate pH value for good crop growth is 5-7.5.
• Verities of Wheat
➢Kalyan Sona: - It is double gene dwarf variety. It can be cultivated in every
type of climate. It is resistant to Pandemic disease.
➢Raj-3077: - It is dwarf variety. It is resistant to Rust disease. It is suitable
for late sowing.
➢LOK-1: - It is double gene dwarf variety. It is suitable for late sowing
• Seed rate:-
➢For timely sowing: - 100 kg/ha.
➢For late sowing, saline and alkaline soil and rain-fed areas:- 125 kg/ha.
➢ By Dibbler:- 25-30kg per hectare
• Seed treatment
1. Fungicidal Seed Treatment
• Purpose: Protects against fungal diseases like loose smut, flag smut,
and seed rot.
• Common Fungicides:
• Carbendazim 50% WP – 2 g/kg seed
• Tebuconazole 2% DS – 2 g/kg seed (also effective against loose smut)
2.Insecticidal Seed Treatment
• Purpose: Protects emerging seedlings from soil insects like termites.
• Common Insecticides:
• Imidacloprid 600 FS – 1 ml/kg seed
• Thiamethoxam 30 FS – 1 ml/kg seed
3.Biofertilizer/Biocontrol Agent Treatment
• Purpose: Enhances nutrient uptake and suppresses soil-borne
pathogens.
• Examples:
• Trichoderma viride – 4 g/kg seed
• Azotobacter or PSB (Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria) – 5–10 ml/kg seed
• Sowing time: - From the first week of November to the last week of
November.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
➢N: - 120kg/ha
➢P2O5: - 60kg/ha
➢ K2O: -40kg/ha
• Irrigation: -
• For good crops production, 6 irrigation is required.
• 1. Crown Root Initiation (21 days after sowing)
• 2. Late Tillering (45-50 days after sowing)
• 3. Late Joinging (65-70 days after sowing) (rapid stem growth and
development of head)
• 4. Flowering (85-90 days after sowing)
• 5. Milk stage (100-105 days after sowing)
• 6. Dough ripe (115-125 days after sowing)
• Weed and their control measures

Phalaris minor Convolvulus arvensis

• Control measures
➢To control Phalaris minor and monocot weed spray Tribunil or
Isoproturon (Post emergence) at the rate of 2kg per ha in 400-600 l of
water
➢Generally 25-30 and 40-50 days after sowing hand weeding should
be practiced for manually weed control.
• Harvesting and threshing:- High yielding dwarf varieties of wheat should
be harvested when the leaves and stems turn yellow and become fairly
dry. To avoid loss in yield crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe
• After harvesting the crop by hand, it is dried and three to four days on the
threshing floor and then threshing is done by trampling bullocks or
thresher attached to bullocks.
• Major Diseases
Diseases Pathogen
Foot Rot, Root Rot and Seedling Blight Helminthosporium sativum and
Fusarium spp (Fungus).
Karnal bunt of wheat Neovossia indica
Loose smut of wheat Ustilago nuda tritici
Powdery mildew of wheat Erysiphe graminis tritici
Leaf rust (Brown rust) Puccinia triticina
• Important Insect – pest of wheat
 3. MAIZE
Botanical Name:- Zea mays
Family: - Poaceae.
Origin:- Mexico
➢USA is largest producer of Maize in word (37%).
➢ Maize is also known as “Back Bone of USA”.
➢India produces 2% of the world's maize.
➢Maize is C4 and Day Neutral Plant .
➢Maize is cross-pollinated crops.
➢Zein protein is found in Maize.
➢Zeatin is natural cytokinin fond in maize
• Climatic requirement
➢Maize is warm season crop. Maximum temperature need for their
complete growth is at 24-30°C.
➢Suitable temperature for germination is 21oC
• Varieties
➢Rabi Season Varieties:- Ganga-II, Deccan – 103, Deccan – 105,
➢Popcorn:- Amber Popcorn, Pearl Popcorn
➢Sweet Corn:- Madhuri
• Seed Rate:-
➢ Hybrid varieties:- 20-25kg/ha.
➢Composite varieties:- 18-20kg/ha.
➢For Fodder:- 40-50kg/ha.
➢By Dibbler:- 4kg/ha.
• Seed treatment
➢Seed treatment with Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed for the control of downy
mildew and crazy top.
➢Seeds treated with fungicides
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
➢N: - 120kg/ha
➢ P2O5: - 60kg/ha
➢K2O: -40kg/ha
• Water management:- Maize crop is sensitive to both moisture stress and
excessive moisture, hence regulate irrigation according to the
requirement
• Harvesting of Maize:-
➢ Harvesting should be done when the crop outer cover of the cob turns
from green to white color.
➢ Harvesting can be done by hand.
➢ Machines are available to separate the seeds
• Insect and pest in maize crop
 Disease of maize

Disease Pathogen
Downy mildew: Peronosclerospora sorghi
Turcicum leaf blight: Exserohilum turcicum.
Maydis leaf blight Bipolaris maydis
 4. Mustard
Scientific Name :Brassica sp.
Family : Cruciferae
➢India is second largest producer of mustered after Canada in Word.
➢Rajasthan rank first in area and production of mustered in India.
➢Pungent aroma in mustard oil is due to sinigrin alkaloids, it is poisonous
compound.
➢Yellow color of mustered oil is due to carotenoids.
• Climate
➢A crop of cool climate.
➢ It is cultivated in sub-tropics.
➢Rabi season crop in India,
➢ Sep-Oct to Mar-Apr
➢Temperature range 3 to 40°C
• Varieties
➢Yellow Mustard Varieties:- Benoy (B-9), Type-42, M-3, K-88, T-151, K
➢Brown Mustard:- Pusa Kalyani, Sufla, BSH-1, BS-70,
• Seed rate
➢ Irrigated area:- 2.5kg/ha
➢ Rain fed area:- 4-6kg/ha.
➢Mix Cropping:- 2-3kg/ha.
➢Test weight:- 3-5 g depending upon crop and variety.
• Sowing time:- Mid-Sep to Oct end
• Manure and fertilizer : -
• FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
• N: - 80kg/ha
• P2O5: - 60-80kg/ha
• K2O: -40-50kg/ha
• Irrigation
➢ Total water requirement - 400mm
➢ Moisture at pre-flowering and pod filling stage is critical
➢Two irrigations for mustard; One at rosette stage (20-30 DAS), Another at
siliqua stage (50 60 DAS).
• Weeds

Chenpodium album
Melitotus alba
• Harvesting maturity
➢Color of leaves, stem and silique turn green to pale yellow o Lower
silique looks – dried appearance.
➢Upper may be green.
➢Seeds in the silique makes rattling sound.
• Diseases of mustard
Diseases Pathogen
Alternaria Blight Alternaria brassicae.
Downy Mildew: Peronospora brassicae.
White Blister/Rust Albugo candida
 5.SUNFLOWER
Botanical Name:- Helianthus annuus
Family: - Asteraceae or Compositae.
Origin:-Mexico.

➢ Sunflower is one of the most important oil seed crop grown in temperate
countries. It is a major source of vegetable oil in the world.
➢Russia is large producer of sunflower in word.
➢Sunflower seed was the third largest source of vegetable oil worldwide
• Climate:-
➢The crop requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth.
➢High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and rainfall at the time
of flowering results in poor seed set.
• Varieties:
➢Often-cross pollinated crop:- Surya, Modern, BSH-1
➢Powdery mildew resistant varieties:- MSFH-8
➢Other Varieties:- Sunrise Varun, Morden Dwarf, Ramson Record, Kota
improved.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢ FYM: - 10-15t / ha.
➢ N: -60-80kg / ha
➢P2O5: -40kg / ha
➢ K2O:- 40kg/ha
• Water management:–
➢In sunflower farming, normally no irrigation is needed for kharif crop.
➢Rabi crop may be irrigated thrice after 40, 75 and 110 days of sowing.
Sunflower crop is highly sensitive to water stress between flowering
and grain filling stages.
➢Therefore, one irrigation may be provided in case of moisture
deficiency during this stage.
• Harvesting:-
➢The sunflower crop is ready for harvest when moisture in seed is 20 per
cent.
➢The harvested heads should be dried well in sun and then only
threshes by beating the center of the head with a small stick.
• Diseases
1. Rust (fungus - Puccinia helianthi)
2. Powdery Mildew (fungus - Erysiphe cichoracearum)
3. Downy Mildew (fungus - Plasmopara halstedii)
4. Mosaic (virus
• Insect:-
1. Sunflower Beetles
2. Cutworms
3. Sunflower Borers
4. Sunflower Moths
5. Grasshoppers
 6.Soyabean
Botanical Name:- Glycine max
Family: -Leguminosae.
Origin:-China.
➢India is also a main cultivation and production country in all over the
world.
➢In India soybean is 3 to 5% production in all over the world
➢Soybean is known as the “GOLDEN BEAN”, “WONADER CROP”, “POOR
MAN MEAT” and “VEGETABLE MEAT”.
➢Soy milk is prepared by soybean, it is rich source of protein.
➢Soybean oil also use in vegetative ghee making.
➢ Soybean contains essential heart friendly omega-3 fats.
• Climate- Soybean needs about 15 to 320C temperature for germination
but for growth 25-30oC temperature is good.
• Verities:-
➢VL Soya 21, Ahilya 2
➢Indian other Varieties:- Ankur, Alankar, Gorav, T-49, Punjab-1.
• Seed rate
Rainy Season Crops Summer season crops
Seed rate 70-80kg/ha 100-120kg/ha
Sowing time June-July Feb-March
Planting distance 45-60 x 15-20cm. 30-45x15-20cm
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t / ha.
➢ N: -20-30kg / ha
➢P2O5: -60-80kg / ha
➢K2O:- 40-60kg/ha
• Irrigation:-
➢In case of Kharif crop irrigation is not needed and it is grown rainfed.
➢However, during summer, the crop can be grown only under assured
irrigation and its needs about 5-6 irrigations.
• Harvesting:- Crop harvested at proper stage by usual method, threshing
machine.
➢Signs of maturity- Dropping of leaves, leaves turn yellow,
soyabean Harvesting of soyabean
• Insect and pest in soya bean
• Diseases in soyabean
 7.Ground Nut
Botanical Name:- Arachis hypogaea L.
Family: - Leguminous.
Origin:- Brazil
➢Groundnut is known as “King of edible oil seed”.
➢It is also used as animal feed (oil pressings, seeds, green material and
straw) and industrial raw material (oil cakes and fertilizer).
➢ Cultivated groundnut originates from South America.
• Climate
➢Groundnut is essentially a tropical plant. It requires a long and warm
growing season.
➢During the ripening period, it requires about a month of warm, dry
weather.
• Varieties:-, TMV-2, Pol-2, AK 12-24
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t / ha.
➢ N: -20-40kg / ha
➢ P2O5: -50-90kg / ha
➢K2O:- 20-40kg/ha
• Harvesting
➢Groundnuts mature from 90-130 days depending on the varieties.
➢Mature nuts should be firm and dry and brown on the outside.
➢The inside of the pods should be grey and produce a rattling sound when
shaken
Harvested groundnut
• Insect and pest in groundnut
• Disease of groundnut
 8.Black Gram
Botanical Name:- Vigna mungo
Family: - Leguminous.
Origin:- India
➢Black gram is popularly known as “Urad”, is one of the most important
pulses crop, grown across India.
➢Urad is used as a fodder for animals.
➢Apart from proteins in urad, the dominance of riboflavin, phosphorus,
ascorbic acid and thiamine is found.
• Climate:-
➢Urad can be cultivated in a wide range climate.
➢Specially it is hot and humid climate crop. 25-30oC temperature is good for
growth.
➢It give good yield in 60-70cm annual rainfall area.
• Varieties:- Krishna, Naveen, Azad-1,
• Seed rate
Season Seed rate Sowing time Spacing
kharif 12 to 15 kg / ha Mid-February- 30 X 10 cm
Mid-March,
zaid 20 to 25 kg / ha Jun- july 20-25 X 10 cm
• Seed treatment:- Seed should be treated with thiram and Captan 75 WS
@ 2.5 g / kg seed.
• It should be treated with rhizobium culture for atmospheric N fixation.
• Manure and Fertilizer
➢FYM:- 10-15t/ha.
➢N:-20 kg/ha. 92
➢ P2O5:-40kg/ha
➢K2O:- 20Kg/ha
➢ Gypsum:- 125Kg/ha
• Irrigation management:-
➢Irrigation is not needed in rainy season, but in summer season irrigation
should be given as per critical stages and availability of irrigation water.
➢Number and frequency of irrigation depend upon the soil type and
weather
• Harvesting stage: - Urad is ready for harvesting in 80-100 days.
• Insect in black gram
1. Cut worm
2. Leaf Hopper
3. White Fly
• Diseases in black gram
1.Powdery mildew (Podosphaera fusca)
2. Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora spp.)
3. Yellow mosaic
 9.Red Gram/Pigeon Pea
Botanical Name:- Cajanus cajan
Family: - Leguminous.
Origin:- Africa.
➢Red gram is second important pulses crop after green gram in India.
➢ Red gram is important pulses crop of Kharif season.
➢India is large producer of red gram in word-wide.
➢ It is also known as Tour dal and Arhar.
• Climate:-
➢Toor Dal ( Arhar) needs a moist and warm weather; 30 – 35 °C during
germination and slightly lower temperature (20 -25°C) during active
vegetative growth.
• Varieties: UPAS-120, Prabhat, ICPL 87, Laxmi, Gwalior 3.
• seed rate:- 12-15kg/ha for single and 6-8kg/ha for mix cropping
➢Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with thiram @ 1.5 to 2 g / kg
seed or treatment with 3 g thiram/kg + 3 g carbendazim/kg seed.
➢ After that should be treated with rhizobium culture for atmospheric N
fixation.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t / ha.
➢ N: -20-30kg / ha
➢P2O5: -80-100kg / ha
➢ K2O:- 40-50kg/ha
• Irrigation management: -Red Gram requires 350-400 mm water, during
its entire growth period. Optimum moisture is necessary during (a)
budding (b) flowering and (c) pod formation stages.
• Maturity, harvesting & threshing: -
➢Pods and plant dried, grains become hard, and moisture percent in grain
at harvesting should be 20-22 %.
➢The pods or whole crop after complete drying should be threshed
manually or by machine.
• Insect and pest in red gram
• Gram pod borer
• Blue butterfly
• Grass blue butterfly
• Plume moth
• Spotted pod borer
• Bean Aphids:-
• Disease in red gram
• Fusarium Wilt:-Fusarium udum
• 2. Sterility Mosaic Disease (SMD):- It is viral diseases.
• 3. Alternaria Leaf Spot:- Alternaria alternate
• 4. Powdery mildew:- Oidiopsis taurica

Mosaic disease
 10.Pea
• Botanical Name:- Pisum sativum var.
• Family: - Leguminous.
• Origin:- Ethiopia.
➢The crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as
vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse.
➢Tender seeds are also used in soups.
➢Canned, frozen and dehydrated peas are very common for use during
off-season.
• Varieties : Alaska, Meteor, Early Badger
• Climate:- Pea is typically a cool season crop and thrives well in cool
weather.
➢ Optimum temperature for seed germination is 22oC.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢ FYM: - 20-25t / ha.
➢ N: -20-30kg / ha
➢ P2O5: -60-80kg / ha
➢ K2O:- 50-60kg/ha
• irrigation:- Pea, like any legume vegetable, is sensitive to drought and
excessive irrigation
• Harvesting:- Since tender peas with high sugar content fetch
premium price in market, care should be taken to harvest pods at
correct maturity.
➢Usually 3-4 harvests at 10 days intervals are possible
• Insect and pest in pea
• Stem fly
• Pea aphid
• Leaf miner
• Pod bore

Pea aphid Stem fly Pod borer

• Diseases of pea
Pea wilt- (Fusarium oxysporum)
Downy mildew- (Peronospora viciae)
Leaf and pod spots- (Ascochyta pisi)
Botrytis, or grey mould- (Botrytis cinerea)
Powdery mildew- (Erysiphe pisi)

Pea wilt Downy mildew Powdery mildew

 11 Jute
Botanical Name:- Corchorus sp
White Jute:- Corchorus capsularis
Tossa Jute:-Corchorus olitorius
Family: - Tilaceae.
Origin:- Indo-Burma.
➢India is largest producer of jute in word.
➢Highest production of jute in India is West Bengal.
➢ Jute is natural fiber known as “Golden fiber”
Climate:- Jute crop grows well in rainfed, moderate, warm humid
atmosphere and sunshine conditions.
• Varieties:- JRC-321, JRC-212, JRC-7447, JRO-632, JRO-878,
• Seed Rate, Spacing, Sowing Method,

vaterites Line Sowing Broad Casting No.Of

(seed rate kg/ha) (seed rate kg/ha) Plants/Sq.Mt
Olitorius 5 7 85
Capsularis 7 10 70

capsularis
• Sowing Time:- Feb month of the year.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 8-10t / ha.
➢ N: -20kg / ha
➢ P2O5: -20kg / ha
➢ K2O:- 20kg/ha
• Harvesting Time:-
➢The value of jute lies in its fiber. The quality and quantity of fiber are
dependent upon the maturity of plants. Therefore, selection of proper
harvesting time is very important.
➢Jute is harvested any time between 120 days to 150 days when the flowers
have been shed, early harvesting gives good healthy fibers.
➢The harvested plants are left in field for 3 days for the leaves to shed.
• The fibre Extraction:To extract the fibers from the stem, the process is
carried out in the following stages:
• Retting of Jute: Retting is the process by which the fiber is removed from
the stalk. Then the fibers are washed in clear water.
• Cutting of Jute: Cutting of jute is usually done by hand
• Stripping of jute fiber: Stripping is the process of removing the fibers from
the stalk after the completion of retting.
• Stripping by hand: The bundles of stems are removed from water, allowed
to drain off and then each stem stripped separately
• Washing and drying: Extracted fibers are washed in clean water. The dark
color of fibers can be removed by dipping them in tamarind water for 15 to
20 min and again washed in clean water
• After squeezing excess water, the fibers are hanged on bamboo railing for
sun drying for 2-3 days.
• Bailing and Packing:- After grading the jute they packed in bales about
250 pounds for use in the home trade. They are transported to jute market
or direct to jute mills.
• Insect and pest in jute
• Diseases in jute
 12.Sugarcane
Botanical Name: -Saccharum officinarum
Family: -Poacea.
Origin:-South and Southeast Asia.
➢Sugarcane is a most important cash crop of India.
➢Sugarcane is a renewable, natural agricultural resource because it
provides sugar, besides biofuel, fiber, fertilizer
➢Sugarcane juice is used for making white sugar, brown sugar
(Khandsari), Jaggery (Gur) and ethanol.
• Climate:- It requires rainfall of 150 cm and temperatures between 20° to
26°C. For or snowfall damages the plant.
• Varieties:Co S 767, Co S 8432,
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢ FYM: - 20-25t/ha.
➢ N: - 150kg/ha
➢P2O5: - 125kg/ha
➢ K2O: -100kg/ha
• Water management:- In sugarcane, maintenance of optimum soil
moisture during all stages of crop growth is one of the essential
requisites for obtaining high yield
• Harvesting Stage:-
➢Crop Age:- Harvesting is done based on maturity (age) group.
➢Visual Symptoms:- Yellowing and drying of leaves, metallic sound of
mature canes when tapped,
• Insect and pest in sugar cane
• Diseases of sugar cane
 13 sorghum
Botanical Name: -Sorghum bicolour
Family: -Poacea.
Origion:-Africa
➢The sorghum is called the king of coarse grains.
➢The sorghum grain is used primarily as human food in various forms,
such as roti or bhakri (unleavened bread), or is cooked like rice.
• Climate:- Sorghum plants are very hardy and can withstand high
temperature and drought, however, it is grown in arid regions of U.P,
Rajasthan and humid regions of Bengal and Bihar.
• Varieties:-SSG 59-3 (sweet Sudan), Harasona-855, White Pearl CO-27,
AS-16.
• Seed Rate:- 10-12kg/ha for seed and 30-40kg/ha for fodder crops.
• Water Management:- Water requirement is 450-650mm. If the crop is
sown in monsoon time (July). it may require l to 3 irrigations depending
upon rains. For summer crops, 6 to 7 irrigations may be carried out due
to high temperature.
• Manure and fertilizer: -
➢FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
➢N: - 80kg/ha
➢P2O5: - 40 kg/ha
➢ K2O: - 40 kg/ha
• Harvest:- Harvest the crop when the grains turn yellow
• Insect and pest in sorghum
• Diseases of sorghum
 14.PEARL MILLET
• Botanical Name:- Pennisetum glaucum
• Family: - Poaceae.
• Origin:- Africa.
➢ India is largest producer of pearl millet in word.
➢ Highest production of millet in India is in Rajasthan and productivity is
of Gujarat.
➢Millet contain maximum fat among cereal.
➢Millet has maximum drought resistant capacity among cereal crops.
• Varieties :HB-1:- It is first hybrid of millet developed from PAU, Ludhiana.
HHB-67
• Seed Rate:- 4-5kg by direct sowing.
• Sowing Time:- Mid June- Mid July.
• Manure and fertilizer : -
➢ FYM: - 10-15t/ha.
➢ N: - 80-100kg/ha
➢P2O5: - 60-80kg/ha
➢K2O: -40-50kg/ha
• Water Management:- Three irrigation require for good production.
Germination, flowering and grain filling stage are critical stage of
irrigation.
• Harvesting and Threshing:- The crop is ready for harvesting when the
grain become hardy & contain moisture. Two methods can be followed
in harvesting bajra crop: Cutting earhead or cutting of entire plants by
sticks.
Harvesting of pearlmillet Pearl millet
• Insect and pest in pearl millet
• Shoot fly
• Grasshopper
• White ant
• Grey weevil
• Stem borer
• Earhead bug
• Diseases of pearl millet
• Smut: Moesziomyces parepenicillariae
• Rust: Puccinia substriata
• Blast: Pyricularia grisea
(1) Introduction, distribution and economic, importance of fruit –
Mango, Banana, Guava, Lime, Grape, Apple, Pomegranate .
1.Mango
(National fruit of India, King of fruit, )
Botanical name:-Mangifera indica
Family:- Anacardiaceae
Origin:- Indo-Burma
Edible part:- Mesocarp
➢ India is leading country in mango production (about 54.7)
➢Uttar Pradesh is leading stay in mango products and mango area
in India.
➢Mango is a rich source of vitamin-A
• climate:- Mango is belong to tropical climate but it also cultivated in
subtropical area.
➢Rainfall is harmful during flowering.
➢Best temperature of growth:- 24 to 28oC
• Propagation : mainly by grafting
• Harvesting Index:-
➢90-110 days after flowering fruit is ready for harvesting.
➢Natural wax develop on fruit during maturity
➢Yellow or golden color start appearing
• Variety
1. Alphonso
2. Banganapalli
3. Bombay Green:- It is one of the earliest varieties of north India. Its
fruits are highest content of Vit-C
4. Neelum:- It has regular bearing habit.
5. Madhulika:- It is an off-season cultivar.
6. Niranjan:- It is an off-season cultivar.
7. MOCH-1:- It is an off-season cultivar.
• Pest and diseases in mango

Fruit fly
 2.Banana
(Tree of Paradise, Fruit of Paradise, Kalpataru/ A plant of virtues)
Botanical name:-Musa paradisica
Family:- Musaceae
Origin:- South-East Asia (Assam, Burma etc.)
➢India is leading banana producer in word, contribute 21% production of
world.
➢Banana is a rich source of carbohydrate and is rich in vitamin B. It is
also a good source of potassium, phosphorus, calcium & magnesium
• Varieties Robusta . Rasthali (Silk AAB): Poovan (Mysore AAB),Nendran
Ney Poovan
• Propagation:- Banana is propagated by suckers and rhizome.
• Irrigation:-
➢Water requirement of banana varies according to topography, soil,
climate, cultivar and type of culture.
➢ If there is no rain, the plants should be irrigated immediately after
planting.
➢Banana requires high amount of water ranging from 1800-2500 mm
annually
• Harvesting & Yield:-
➢The fruit is harvested when maturity sign was observed.
➢Maturity Index: Drying of leaves.
➢Change of color of fruit skin from deep green to light green.
➢Ridges of the fruit turn round from angular.
➢Main harvesting season is September to April.
• Insect and pest in banana

Rhizome weevil aphid Pseudostem borer

• Diseases of banana
 3.Guava
(Apple of Tropics, King of Tropical Fruits)
Botanical name:-Psidium guajava
Family:-Myrtaceae
Origin:- Mexico/Tropical America
➢Guava also known as “poor man’s fruit” or “apple of the tropics”.
• Climate:- Owing to its hardy nature, guava is grown successfully in
tropical and subtropical regions
• Varieties : Lucknow 49/L-49
A1lahabad Safeda
Chittldar
Harijha
Hafshi:
• Propagation:- Air Layering also practices at commercial scale.
• Irrigation:- The young guava plants required irrigation at weekly intervals
during the summer months and 2 to 3 irrigations during the winter
months.
• Harvesting:- Guava is ready for harvest as soon as the deep green color
turns light and a yellowish green patch appears.
• Insect and pest in guava
• Fruit fly
• Fruit borer
• Bark eating cate
• Diseases in guava
• Guava wilt:-Fusarium oxysporum sp
• Fruit rot:-Phytophthora nicotianae
• Stem canker and dry fruit rot:-Physalopara psidii
• Dieback and fruit rot:-Colletotrichum psidii
 4.lime
Botanical name : citrus aurentiifolia
Family : Rutaceae

• Climate:- Lime and lemon trees are evergreen, grown in truly

subtropical climates but it is also grown in tropical region. Best
temperature for growth is 16-32oC.
• Varieties: Pramalini ,Vikram, Chakradhar: Seedless variety of acid lime.
PKM-1 , Sai sarbati
• Irrigation:- In summer 15 days interval and 25 days interval in winter.
During flowering season should not supply much irrigation
• Harvesting Stage:- The fruits mature in six months after flowering. In
South India, about 60 per cent of the total crop is harvested during July
to September, .
• Pest and diseases in lime
• Diseases:- 1. Citrus Gummosis –(Phytophthora spp.)
• 2. Citrus canker- (Xanthomonas citri)
• 3. Citrus Greening
Insect-Pest:-
1. Citrus thrips
2. Cirrus butterfly
3. Citrus aphids
4. Citrus leaf miner:
 5.Grapes/Fruit of the vine
Botanical name:-Vitis vinifera
Family:- Vitaceae.
Edible part:- Placenta
➢ It is a deciduous crop. Its natural habitat is temperate climate.
➢India rank 8th in word for grapes production
➢Tartaric acid is commercially extracted from grapes.
• Climate:- It is naturally temperate reason crop. In its natural habitat, the
vines grow and produce during the hot and dry period.
Varieties:- Coloured Seeded:- Bangalore Blue, Gulabi, Kishmish Chorni.
Coloured Seedless:- Beauty Seedless, Sharad Seedless.
Green Seeded:- Anab-A-Shahi, Dilkhush.
White Seedless:- Perlette, Pusa Seedless
• Propagation:- Hard wood cutting is commercial propagation method.
• Irrigation:- Grape is strictly irrigated perennial crop and regularly
irrigated.
• Harvesting and yields:- Normal grape harvest season starts in February
and continuous up to end of April.
• Diseases and pest in Grapes
• Powdery Mildew:- It is a fungal disease
• Downey mildew:- It is fungal diseases
• Anthracnose:- It is fungal diseases
 6.Apple
Botanical name: -
Family: - Rosaceae
Centre of Origin: - South-Western Asia.
• Edible portion: - Fleshy thalamus (mid-fruit fever)
➢China is leading country in apple production
➢Jammu & Kashmir is leading state in apple production. Himachal
Pradesh rank second in apple production.
• CLIMATE:- Most of the apple varieties require 1000-1500 hours of chilling
below 70C during winter to break the rest period.
• Varieties:- Michael, Molies Delicious, Top Red Golden, Red Delicious,
• Propagation Method: - Tongue grafting

• Time of propagation: - February-March

• Irrigation: - The time of April to August is most important for irrigation.
• Flowering time: - Central April-mid May
• Insect and pest in apple
➢San Jose Scale
➢ Apple Maggot
➢ Apple Pandemis
➢ Codling Moth
• Diseases of apple
• Apple scab -Venturia inaequalis
• Blue mold - Penicillium spp.
• Calyx-end rot -Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
 7.Pomegranate
Botanical name:-Punica granatum
Family:- Punicaceae
Origin:- Iran
➢India has occupied first position in the world with respect to
pomegranate area and production.
• Climate:- Pomegranate plant has a versatile adaptability to wide range of
climatic conditions. It grows best in semi-arid climate, where cool winter,
hot and dry summer prevail
• Verities:- Ganesh,Alandi ,Dholka.
• Propagation:- Hard Wood Cutting
• Irrigation:- In summer season:- 7-10days interval.
➢In winter season:- 15-20days interval.
• Harvesting:- The fruits are ready for harvest after 5-7 months after
blossom.
➢When skin turns slightly yellow, fruits gives a metallic sound when
tapped, the fruits are harvested.
➢Each tree bears about 100 fruits and continues to give economical crop
upto 25-30 years.
• Insect pests: Fruit borer or pomegranate butter fly
➢Bark eating caterpillar
➢Stem borer
➢ Mealy bugs
• Disease :Leaf Spot- Xanthomonas sp
• Fruit Rot- Phomopsis sp
• Wilt -Fusarium
Introduction, distribution and economic importance of Vegetables – Potato, Tomato,
Cauliflower, Cabbage, Spinach, Brinjal, Bottle gourd, Pumpkin, Cucumber .
1. Potato
(Poor man’s Vegetable, Poor man’s friend)
Botanical name:-Solanum tuberosum.
Family:- Solanaceae.
Origin:- Peru
➢Potato popularly known as ‘The king of vegetables’, has emerged
as fourth most important food crop in India after rice, wheat and
maize.
➢India is the third largest producer of Potato (first China).
➢If tuber expose to sunlight when tuber turn in green color due to
solanine synthesis. 5mg/100g solanine is normal if it is greater
than 20 mg/100g it is not good for consumption.
• Climate:- Potato is basically a cool season crop. It is grown in winter in
plains of India. However, in northern hills, it is grown as summer season
crop.
• Varieties: Kufri Chandramukhi , Kufri Kuber , Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Alankar
• Seed Rate:- 25-30qt/ha (Each tuber weight should be 40g and diameter
should be 2.5-3.5 cm).
• Manuring & Fertilizers:-
➢ FYM:- 20-25 t/ha.
➢N:- 150kg/ha.
➢ P2O5:- 60-80kg/ha.
➢K2O:- 80-120kg/ha.
• Irrigation:- Potato needs irrigation at frequent intervals, depending upon
the soil and climatic conditions. Usually, 6 irrigation is sufficient.
• Harvesting:- Harvested potatoes are heaped under shade for a
couple of days, so that their skin becomes hard and soil adhering with
them is also separated out. Harvesting is done by potato digger.
• Insect and pest in potato
• Diseases of potato
 2.Tomato
(No. one processing vegetable, Wolf Apple,)
Botanical name:- Lycopersicon esculentum.
Origin:- Peru (South America/Tropical America).
Family:- Solanaceae.
➢India ranks 2rd in tomato production (First-China).
➢Tomato is a good source of Vit-C and Vit-D.
➢Tomato is used as a fresh fruit, Salad, Vegetable,
• Variety : Hisar Anmol, Hisar Arun, Hisar Lalima, Krishna, pusa Hybrid-8
Pusa Red Plum.
• Climatic Requirement:- The tomato is a warm-season crop. The crop
does well under an average monthly temperature of 21oC to 25oC.
• Seed rate:- For raising the seedlings in nursery bed 400 - 500 g/ha seeds
are required while only 125-150g/ha hybrid seeds are required.
• Manuring & Fertilizers:-
➢ FYM:- 20-25 t/ha
➢N:- 100kg/ha
➢ P2O5:- 60kg/ha
➢ K2O:- 60kg/ha
• Irrigation:- During summer season, irrigation at every 5 to 7 days interval is
necessary, whereas in winter 10 to 15 days interval is sufficient.
• Harvesting Stage:-
➢Tomatoes are harvested at several stages:-
➢1. Mature Green Stage
➢2. Turning stage
➢ 3. Pink Stage
➢4. Ripe Stage
➢ 5. Over Ripe Stage
• Pest and diseases in tomato
 3. cauliflower
• Botanical name : brassica oleracea
• Family: – Cruciferae/Brassicaceae
• Climate:- It is a cool season vegetable. Climatic factors particularly
temperature plays important role during transformation from vegetative
to curding & curd development & from curd to bolting (emergence of
flower stalks) & flowering.
• Varieties:- Pusa Deepali, Pusa Katki, Early Kunwari, Early Patna
• Harvesting:
 4.CABBAGE
B.N.:-Brassica oleracea var.
Origin:-Mediterranean Region.
Family: – Cruciferae/Brassicaceae.
• Edible Part:- Head
➢India rank II in cabbage production after China.
➢Cabbage is rich source of Vit-A, B and C
• Climate:- It is a cold season crop. It thrives best in a relatively cool moist
climate
• Varieties:- Golden Acre, Pride of India, Pusa Drum Head, Large Drum
Head, Pusa Mukta
• Pest and diseases in cabbage
Clubroot
Black rot

Powdery mildew
 3) Introduction, distribution and economic importance of Flowers – Rose,
Gladiolus, marigold.
1.Rose
Scientific Name: Rosa spp.
Family: Rosaceae
Origin :- India
➢It is the national flower of England, Iran, and some American States adopted
rose as their emblem.
➢Alpha Garden, England is biggest Garden of rose in world.
• Uses of Rose
• Cut flower
• Garden Display.
• Pot plants
• Rose water
• Rose oil:-
• Propagation
➢T budding and stem cutting
• Insect-Pest
➢Aphids
➢Red scale
➢Chaffer beetle
• Diseases of rose
➢Black spot
➢ Powdery mildew
 2. Marigold
Botanical name : Tagetes sp
Family : Astraceae

➢Marigold is one of the most commonly grown commercial flower crops

after rose in India.
• Seed Rate:- 1-1.5kg/ha.
• Varieties:- New Alaska, Aapricot, Glitters, Happiness, Primrose,
• Harvesting:- After transplanting plans take 40-50 days to flower. Loose
flowers are plucked when attain full size depending upon the variety.
Flowers should be harvested in the morning hours.
 3. Gladiolus

• Botanical name: -Gladiolus x grandifloras

• Family: - Iridaceae
• The common name of gladiolus is ‘sword lily’ because of its sword-
shaped foliage.
• Gladiolus is popularly known as Queen of bulbous ornamental plants.
• Climate:- Subtropical and temperate climatic conditions are suitable
but it is also cultivated in tropical belt.
• Varieties : Kum-Kum:- Resistant to Fusarium wilt. Dhiraj:- Resistant to
Fusarium wilt
• Propagation:- Gladiolus is propagated by corms
• Irrigation:- Depending upon weather 8-12 irrigations (7 to 10 days
interval) of 2.5-5 cm depth are required
• Harvesting:-
➢For local market gladiolus is harvested when the lower most pair of
floret is fully opened.
➢For distant market harvesting is usually done when the lower most pair
of floret has just shown the color.
TYPES OF SEED – FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED
• In seed production systems, especially for crops like wheat, rice,
pulses, etc., foundation seed and certified seed are two important
categories in the seed multiplication chain.
• 1. Foundation Seed
• Definition: Seed that is produced from breeder seed under strict
supervision to maintain genetic purity and identity.
• Source: Comes directly from breeder seed(highest quality seed
from plant breeder).
• Purpose: Used for producing certified seed.
• Quality Standards:
• Very high genetic purity (99% or more).
• Low limits for inert matter, weed seeds, and other crop seeds.
• Grown under strict field isolation and inspection.
• Tag Colour: White (in India, as per seed certification standards).
• Producers: Agricultural universities, research institutes, state seed
corporations.
• 2. Certified Seed
• Definition: Seed produced from foundation seed that is intended for
commercial crop production.
• Source: Comes from foundation seed.
• Purpose: Distributed to farmers for sowing.
• Quality Standards:
• Slightly less strict than foundation seed, but still maintains high purity (around
98%).
• Free from diseases, weed seeds, and contaminants.
• Subject to certification by official seed certification agencies.
• Tag Colour: Blue (in India).
• Producers: State seed corporations, private seed companies, certified
seed growers.
• Seed Multiplication Chain
• Breeder Seed → Foundation Seed → Certified Seed → Farmer's
Produce
Plant propagation method – layering, cutting and tissue culture

• Air Layering
• Type: Vegetative propagation.
• Process:
• Select a healthy branch of the plant.
• Remove a small ring of bark (~2–3 cm) from the stem.
• Apply rooting hormone (optional) to the exposed cambium.
• Wrap the wound with moist sphagnum moss or soil.
• Cover with polythene to retain moisture.
• Roots develop in a few weeks to months; the branch is then cut and
planted.
• Examples: Guava, litchi, pomegranate, jasmine, rubber plant.
• Advantages:
• Produces true-to-type plants.
• Faster fruiting compared to seed propagation.
• 2. Cutting
• Type: Vegetative propagation using stem, leaf, or root pieces.
• Process:
• Select a healthy parent plant.
• Cut a portion of the stem (softwood, semi-hardwood, or hardwood), root, or leaf.
• Treat cut ends with rooting hormone (e.g., IBA, NAA).
• Plant in moist rooting medium (sand, vermiculite, soil mix).
• Maintain humidity and shade until roots form.
• Examples:
• Stem cuttings: Rose, hibiscus, sugarcane.
• Leaf cuttings: Bryophyllum, sansevieria.
• Root cuttings: Sweet potato, lemon.
• Advantages:
• Simple and inexpensive.
• Quick multiplication.
• Tissue Culture (Micropropagation)
• Type: In-vitro propagation under sterile, controlled lab conditions.
• Process:
• Select and sterilize explant (leaf, stem tip, root tip, etc.).
• Place in culture medium (Murashige & Skoog medium) with nutrients and
growth regulators.
• Maintain in aseptic culture room under controlled temperature and light.
• Induce callus, organogenesis, or somatic embryogenesis.
• Regenerate whole plantlets.
• Harden seedlings in greenhouse before field planting.
• Examples: Banana, orchid, potato, strawberry.
• Advantages:
• Produces disease-free and genetically uniform plants.
• Year-round production.
• Rapid multiplication of elite varieties.
Tissue culture steps
Importance of farm implements and their maintenance.
• Pick Axe:- The pointed edge is most often used to break up rocky
surfaces or other hard surfaces such as concrete or hardened dried
earth

• Spade:- It is a digging tool. In farm, a spade is a hand tool used to dig

or loosen ground, or to break up lumps in the soil.
• Fork:- It is used for digging, hoeing and compost handling.

• Shovel:- It is use for placing dug-out soil from one place to another.
• Garden Rake:- It is a broom for outside use; a horticultural implement
consisting of a toothed bar fixed transversely to a handle, and used to
collect leaves, hay, grass, etc., and, in gardening, light weeding and
levelling, removing dead grass from lawns, and generally for purposes
performed in agriculture by the harrow.
• Trowel:- It is used for breaking up earth, digging small holes,
especially for planting and weeding, mixing in fertilizer or other
additives, and transferring plants to pots.

• Axe:- It is used for felling trees and cutting branches.

• Pruning Knife:- It is use for cutting small shoots for pruning.

• Secateurs:- It is used in pruning for cutting twigs and shoot.

• Hedge Shear:- It is used pruning hedge to maintain them in proper shape.