To construct a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) that recognizes ternary numbers (base-3

numbers) divisible by 4, we need to define states and transitions that correspond to the
remainders of these numbers modulo 4. Here’s how we can design the DFA:

DFA Construction

States:

We will have 4 states corresponding to the remainders when a ternary number is divided by 4:

1. State q0q_0q0: Represents numbers divisible by 4 (remainder 0).

2. State q1q_1q1: Represents numbers with remainder 1 when divided by 4.
3. State q2q_2q2: Represents numbers with remainder 2 when divided by 4.
4. State q3q_3q3: Represents numbers with remainder 3 when divided by 4.

Alphabet:

The DFA will read ternary digits (0, 1, 2).

Transitions:

For each state, we define transitions based on the next ternary digit:

 From q0q_0q0:
o q0q_0q0 on input 0 goes to q0q_0q0
o q0q_0q0 on input 1 goes to q1q_1q1
o q0q_0q0 on input 2 goes to q2q_2q2
 From q1q_1q1:
o q1q_1q1 on input 0 goes to q2q_2q2
o q1q_1q1 on input 1 goes to q0q_0q0
o q1q_1q1 on input 2 goes to q3q_3q3
 From q2q_2q2:
o q2q_2q2 on input 0 goes to q1q_1q1
o q2q_2q2 on input 1 goes to q2q_2q2
o q2q_2q2 on input 2 goes to q0q_0q0
 From q3q_3q3:
o q3q_3q3 on input 0 goes to q0q_0q0
o q3q_3q3 on input 1 goes to q3q_3q3
o q3q_3q3 on input 2 goes to q1q_1q1

Start State and Accepting State:

 Start State: q0q_0q0 (since 0 is divisible by 4).

 Accepting State: q0q_0q0 (numbers divisible by 4 will end in state q0q_0q0).

DFA Diagram
Here is the graphical representation of the DFA:

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0 1 2
-> (q0) ---0---> (q0) ---1---> (q1)
| \ | / |
| \--2---> (q2) --0--/ |
| | |
\--1---> (q3) ---2---> (q0) --

 State q0q_0q0 is the start state and accepting state.

 q1q_1q1, q2q_2q2, and q3q_3q3 represent states based on the remainder when the
ternary number is divided by 4.

Explanation:

 Starting at q0q_0q0 (initially divisible by 4), transitions are based on reading each ternary
digit.
 Each state represents a remainder when divided by 4.
 If the DFA ends at q0q_0q0 after processing all ternary digits, the input ternary number is
divisible by 4.

This DFA effectively recognizes all ternary numbers that are divisible by 4, ensuring correct
transitions based on the input symbols and states representing divisibility conditions.

QUES: Determine the FA accepted by the language described by the regular

expression: (0+1)*0(0+1)*0(0+1)* over the alphabet {0,1} and also mention the
accepted language ?

The regular expression given is

(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗(0+1)^*0(0+1)^*0(0+1)^*(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗, which describes
strings over the alphabet {0,1}\{0,1\}{0,1} that contain at least two occurrences of the digit '0',
with any number of '0's and '1's in between and around these occurrences.

Determining the Accepted Language

To find the language accepted by this regular expression, we interpret it as follows:

 (0+1)∗(0+1)^*(0+1)∗: Any number (including zero) of '0's and '1's.

 000: Exactly one '0'.
 (0+1)∗(0+1)^*(0+1)∗: Again, any number of '0's and '1's.
 000: Exactly one more '0'.
 (0+1)∗(0+1)^*(0+1)∗: Any number of '0's and '1's.

Therefore, the language described by this regular expression consists of strings that:
  Contain at least two '0's.
 Can have any sequence of '0's and '1's before, between, and after these two '0's.

Examples of Strings in the Accepted Language

 000000
 010010010
 001000100010
 100011000110001
 011010011010011010
 000001100000001100000001100

Constructing a Finite Automaton (FA)

To construct a Finite Automaton (FA) that accepts this language, we can design a simple DFA
with states that ensure the presence of at least two '0's in the string. Here's a high-level
description:

1. States:
o q0q_0q0: Initial state (start).
o q1q_1q1: After reading the first '0'.
o q2q_2q2: After reading the second '0'.
2. Transitions:
o From q0q_0q0 on input '0' transitions to q1q_1q1.
o From q0q_0q0 on input '1' stays in q0q_0q0.
o From q1q_1q1 on input '0' transitions to q2q_2q2.
o From q1q_1q1 on input '1' stays in q1q_1q1.
o From q2q_2q2 on input '0' stays in q2q_2q2.
o From q2q_2q2 on input '1' stays in q2q_2q2.
3. Accepting State:
o q2q_2q2: Accepting state where the DFA ends after reading at least two '0's.

DFA Diagram
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0 1
-> (q0) ---0---> (q1) --0--> (q2) [Accept]
| \ | /
| \--1---> (q0) --1--/
\--1--/

 q0q_0q0 is the start state where the DFA begins.

 q2q_2q2 is the accepting state where the DFA ends after encountering at least two '0's.

Summary
The language accepted by the regular expression
(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗(0+1)^*0(0+1)^*0(0+1)^*(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗0(0+1)∗ over the alphabet
{0,1}\{0,1\}{0,1} consists of all strings that contain at least two occurrences of the digit '0'. The
Finite Automaton provided ensures that any string accepted leads to the state q2q_2q2 after
encountering two '0's, thereby accepting the language described.

Consider the grammar with following production rules: S→ABD | AC A→aA

| bAa |a B→bbA | aB | AB C→aCa |aD D→aD | bC Convert the above
grammar into Chomsky Normal form

Converting a context-free grammar into Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) involves several steps to
ensure all productions are of the form A→BCA \rightarrow BCA→BC or A→aA \rightarrow
aA→a, where A,B,A, B,A,B, and CCC are non-terminal symbols, and aaa is a terminal symbol.
Here's the process to convert the given grammar into CNF:

Steps to Convert Grammar to CNF

1. Eliminate ε-productions (if any): Remove any productions that derive ε (empty string),
and ensure that if ε is derivable from any non-terminal, replace those occurrences in other
rules.
2. Eliminate unit productions: Remove unit productions (A → B) by substituting the non-
terminal B with all productions where A appears.
3. Introduce new start symbol (if needed): If S → ε is removed, introduce a new start
symbol S' and add S' → S.
4. Convert productions to CNF: Modify each production so that it fits into the form:
o A→BCA \rightarrow BCA→BC
o A→aA \rightarrow aA→a where A,B,A, B,A,B, and CCC are non-terminals, and
aaa is a terminal.

Conversion of Given Grammar into CNF

Let's convert each production step-by-step:

1. Original Grammar:

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S → ABD | AC
A → aA | bAa | a
B → bbA | aB | AB
C → aCa | aD
D → aD | bC

2. Remove ε-productions and unit productions (if any):

o There are no ε-productions, and unit productions are handled in subsequent steps.
3. Introduce new start symbol (not needed here).
4. Convert productions:
 o Convert each production to ensure it is either of the form A→BCA \rightarrow
BCA→BC or A→aA \rightarrow aA→a.

Converted Grammar in CNF

After applying the CNF conversion steps, the grammar becomes:

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S → XY | AC
A → aA | bAa | a
B → XY | aB | AB
C → aCa | XY
D → XY | bC
X → a
Y → b

Explanation:

 S → XY | AC: S can derive either XY or AC.

 A → aA | bAa | a: A remains unchanged as it already fits the CNF form.
 B → XY | aB | AB: B has been modified to fit CNF by introducing new non-terminals X
and Y.
 C → aCa | XY: C is converted to CNF by introducing XY.
 D → XY | bC: D is converted similarly by introducing XY.

Summary:

The given context-free grammar has been successfully converted into Chomsky Normal Form
(CNF) by systematically restructuring each production rule to adhere to the requirements of
CNF, where each production either consists of two non-terminals or a terminal symbol. This
conversion process ensures that the grammar is now in a standard form that simplifies many
aspects of theoretical analysis and parsing.

Design a PDA for the language L= {WWT | W= (a+b)

To design a Pushdown Automaton (PDA) for the language L={WWT∣W=(a+b)∗}L = \{ WWT \

mid W = (a+b)^* \}L={WWT∣W=(a+b)∗}, where WWTWWTWWT means WWW repeated twice
with a TTT in between, and WWW is any string of aaas and bbbs, we can proceed with the
following approach:

Approach and Design of PDA

1. Understanding the Language:

o WWW is any string consisting of aaas and bbbs, represented as
(a+b)∗(a+b)^*(a+b)∗.
o WWTWWTWWT means WWW followed by WWW followed by TTT.
 2. PDA Components:
o Stack: Use the stack to keep track of the opening parentheses (for WWW) and
match them with closing parentheses.
3. States:
o q0q_0q0: Initial state where the PDA starts.
o q1q_1q1: State to process WWW.
o q2q_2q2: State to process TTT.
o q3q_3q3: Final accepting state.
4. Transitions:
o From q0q_0q0:
 Read aaa or bbb: Push onto stack and move to q1q_1q1.
 Read ϵ\epsilonϵ (empty input): Push a special symbol ZZZ onto the stack
and stay in q0q_0q0.
o From q1q_1q1:
 Read aaa or bbb: Stay in q1q_1q1 and continue pushing onto stack.
 Read ϵ\epsilonϵ (end of WWW): Move to q2q_2q2 after popping symbols
to check for match.
o From q2q_2q2:
 Read aaa or bbb: Pop from stack and move back to q1q_1q1 to check for
WWW.
 Read ϵ\epsilonϵ (end of second WWW): Move to q3q_3q3 after popping
symbols to check for match.
o From q3q_3q3:
 Read ϵ\epsilonϵ: Accept and halt.
5. Acceptance:
o The PDA accepts when WWW (pushed and popped from the stack) matches with
WWW again and is followed by TTT.

Detailed PDA Diagram

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Initial State: q0

(a+b)* (a+b)* (a+b)*

q0 ---------> q1 ---------> q1 ---------> q2 ---------> q3
Push a, b Push a, b Pop symbols
Pop symbols

 State Descriptions:
o q0q0q0: Start state where the PDA begins. It pushes symbols onto the stack as it
reads WWW.
o q1q1q1: State where WWW is read twice. It continues to push symbols onto the
stack.
o q2q2q2: State where the PDA pops symbols from the stack to verify WWW and
then moves to TTT.
 o q3q3q3: Final accepting state where the PDA accepts if all transitions and
conditions are satisfied.

Summary

This PDA design effectively recognizes strings of the form WWTWWTWWT where WWW
consists of aaas and bbbs. It uses its stack to maintain the balance and correct structure of
WWTWWTWWT, ensuring that WWW is repeated twice with TTT in between, adhering to the
given language LLL.

Write short notes on:

i) Church’s Thesis
ii) ii) Recursive and Recursive Enumerable Language

Sure, here are short notes on Church’s Thesis and Recursive/Recursively Enumerable
Languages:

Church’s Thesis

Church’s Thesis, also known as the Church-Turing Thesis, is a fundamental principle in

computer science and mathematics. It asserts that any effectively calculable function (i.e., any
function that can be computed by an algorithm) can be computed by a Turing machine.
Formally:

 Thesis: Every effectively calculable function is computable by a Turing machine.

Key Points:

1. Origin: Proposed independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in the 1930s.
2. Implications: Implies that any algorithmic procedure can be simulated by a Turing
machine, suggesting that Turing machines capture the essence of effective computation.
3. Interpretation: While not a theorem that can be proven or disproven, it serves as a
guiding principle in theoretical computer science, providing a foundation for the study of
computability and complexity.

Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages

Recursive Languages and Recursively Enumerable Languages are two fundamental classes of
languages in formal language theory, characterized by their relationship to Turing machines.

Recursive Languages:

 Definition: A language is recursive if there exists a Turing machine that halts and
accepts every string in the language, and halts and rejects every string not in the
language.
  Key Points:
o Also known as decidable languages.
o The set of all recursive languages is closed under complementation, union,
intersection, and concatenation.
o Examples include regular languages and context-free languages.

Recursively Enumerable Languages:

 Definition: A language is recursively enumerable (RE) if there exists a Turing machine

that halts and accepts every string in the language, but may either reject or loop
indefinitely on strings not in the language.
 Key Points:
o Also known as semi-decidable languages.
o The set of all recursively enumerable languages is closed under union and
concatenation, but not under complementation.
o Examples include languages that are not recursively enumerable (non-RE), such
as the Halting Problem.

Summary:

 Church’s Thesis asserts the equivalence of Turing machines and effective computation.
 Recursive Languages are decidable by Turing machines that always halt, while
Recursively Enumerable Languages may only halt and accept for strings in the
language.
 These concepts are foundational in understanding the limits of computability and the
structure of languages in formal language theory.

Construct a minimum state automata equivalent to a DFA whose transition

table is as follows where q3 and q4 are final state.
InputState/ A b Q0 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q3 Q3 Q5 Q6 Q4 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q3
Q6 Q6 Q6 Q6 Q7 Q4 Q6

To construct a minimum state automaton equivalent to the given DFA (with states Q0 through
Q7, where Q3 and Q4 are final states) from its transition table, we can follow these steps:

Step-by-Step Construction

1. Identify States and Final States:

o States: Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q7.
o Final States: Q3, Q4.
2. Combine Equivalent States:
o Start with the initial partition of states into final and non-final states: {Q0, Q1,
Q2, Q5, Q7} and {Q3, Q4, Q6}.
3. Refine the Partition Using Transition Table:
 oRefine the partition based on the transitions for each input symbol ('a' and 'b')
until no further refinement is possible.
4. Construct the Minimum State Automaton:
o Create states based on the refined partition, ensuring each state corresponds to a
unique set of states from the original DFA.

Refined Partition and Minimum State Automaton

Given the transition table and states, here's a simplified version of the minimum state automaton:

States of Minimum Automaton:

 State 1: {Q0, Q1, Q2, Q5, Q7} (non-final)

 State 2: {Q3, Q4, Q6} (final)

Transition Function (for 'a' and 'b'):

 From State 1:
o On 'a': State 2
o On 'b': State 1
 From State 2 (self-loop on 'a' and 'b'):
o On 'a': State 2
o On 'b': State 2

Minimum State Automaton Diagram

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State 1 State 2 (Final)
a | a |
v | v |
2 -----> 2
^ | ^ |
| |________| |
b b

Explanation:

 State 1: Represents the set {Q0, Q1, Q2, Q5, Q7}. It is a non-final state.
 State 2: Represents the set {Q3, Q4, Q6}. It is a final state.

This minimum state automaton is constructed such that it preserves the language accepted by the
original DFA while minimizing the number of states needed. Each state in the minimum
automaton corresponds to a unique set of states from the original DFA that behave equivalently
with respect to the input symbols 'a' and 'b'. This process ensures that the resulting automaton is
equivalent to the original DFA in terms of language acceptance.
QUES:State pumping lemma for regular language. Prove that the language
L= {ap | p is prime} is not regular.

To prove that the language L={ap∣p is prime}L = \{ a^p \mid p \text{ is

prime} \}L={ap∣p is prime} is not regular, we can use the pumping lemma for regular languages.
Here's a step-by-step outline:

Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages

The pumping lemma for regular languages states that:

string w∈Lw \in Lw∈L with ∣w∣≥n|w| \geq n∣w∣≥n can be divided into three parts, w=xyzw =
For any regular language LLL, there exists a constant nnn (the pumping length) such that every

xyzw=xyz, satisfying the following conditions:

1. ∣xy∣≤n|xy| \leq n∣xy∣≤n

2. ∣y∣>0|y| > 0∣y∣>0
3. For all i≥0i \geq 0i≥0, xyiz∈Lxy^iz \in Lxyiz∈L.

Proof that L={ap∣p is prime}L = \{ a^p \mid p \text{ is prime} \}L={ap∣p is prime}
is Not Regular

exists a pumping length nnn such that any string w∈Lw \in Lw∈L with ∣w∣≥n|w| \geq
1. Assume LLL is Regular: Assume LLL is regular, then by the pumping lemma, there

n∣w∣≥n can be pumped.

2. Choose a Suitable String: Consider the string w=apw = a^pw=ap, where ppp is a prime
number greater than or equal to nnn.

o www can be divided as w=xyzw = xyzw=xyz such that ∣xy∣≤n|xy| \leq n∣xy∣≤n,
3. Apply the Pumping Lemma: According to the pumping lemma:

∣y∣>0|y| > 0∣y∣>0, and xyiz∈Lxy^iz \in Lxyiz∈L for all i≥0i \geq 0i≥0.

o Since ∣xy∣≤n|xy| \leq n∣xy∣≤n, xyxyxy consists entirely of aaa's.

4. Analyze xyxyxy and yyy:

o yyy consists of aaa's because ∣y∣>0|y| > 0∣y∣>0 and yyy must be within the first
nnn characters.
5. Pump yyy:
o Pump yyy by choosing i>1i > 1i>1. This means xyiz=xyyizxy^iz =

o Since ∣y∣>0|y| > 0∣y∣>0, yyy can be repeated, meaning xy2z,xy3z,…xy^2z,

xyy^izxyiz=xyyiz.

xy^3z, \ldotsxy2z,xy3z,… are all in LLL.

6. Prime Number Property Violation:
o Choose ppp large enough so that xyiz=ap+k∣y∣xy^iz = a^{p + k|y|}xyiz=ap+k∣y∣
(where kkk is a positive integer).

prime and adding a multiple of ∣y∣|y|∣y∣ can result in a composite number).

o p+k∣y∣p + k|y|p+k∣y∣ is not necessarily prime for large enough kkk (since ppp is
 7. Conclusion:
o xyizxy^izxyiz (for i>1i > 1i>1) does not necessarily satisfy the prime number
property required by LLL.
o Therefore, LLL cannot satisfy the pumping lemma for regular languages,
implying that LLL is not regular.

Summary

By applying the pumping lemma for regular languages to the language L={ap∣p is prime}L = \
{ a^p \mid p \text{ is prime} \}L={ap∣p is prime}, we have shown that LLL does not satisfy the
conditions of the lemma when ppp is a prime number greater than or equal to the pumping length
nnn. Therefore, LLL is not a regular language. This proof establishes that the set of prime
numbers in unary representation (using aaa) cannot be recognized by any deterministic finite
automaton.

3.5
A context free grammar G is given by the following productions: E→E+E|E-E|E∗E|E^E|N
N→0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9 Determine whether the grammar G is ambiguous or not.If ambiguous then
construct an unambiguous grammar equivalent to G.
ChatGPT

To determine whether the given context-free grammar GGG is ambiguous or not, we need to
check if there exist multiple parse trees for any string generated by the grammar. If multiple
parse trees exist for at least one string, the grammar is ambiguous; otherwise, it is unambiguous.

Analysis of Grammar GGG

The grammar GGG is given by the following productions:

 E→E+EE \rightarrow E + EE→E+E

 E→E−EE \rightarrow E - EE→E−E
 E→E∗EE \rightarrow E * EE→E∗E
 E→EEE \rightarrow E ^ EE→EE
 E→NE \rightarrow NE→N
 N→0∣1∣2∣3∣4∣5∣6∣7∣8∣9N \rightarrow 0 \mid 1 \mid 2 \mid 3 \mid 4 \mid 5 \mid 6 \mid 7 \
mid 8 \mid 9N→0∣1∣2∣3∣4∣5∣6∣7∣8∣9

Checking Ambiguity

Let's analyze the operators +++, −-−, ∗*∗, and ^ in terms of precedence and associativity to
determine if ambiguity exists:

1. Precedence and Associativity:

o ^ (exponentiation) has the highest precedence and is right-associative.
 o ∗*∗ (multiplication) and /// (division) have the next highest precedence and are
left-associative.
o +++ (addition) and −-− (subtraction) have the lowest precedence and are left-
associative.
2. Potential Ambiguities:
o Operations of the same precedence level (e.g., +++ and −-−) without associativity
can lead to ambiguous parse trees.

Constructing an Unambiguous Grammar

To make the grammar GGG unambiguous, we can explicitly define the precedence and
associativity of operators using separate non-terminals for different levels of precedence. Here's
how we can modify the grammar:

Unambiguous Grammar

Define separate non-terminals for different precedence levels:

 EEE (lowest precedence):

o E→E+TE \rightarrow E + TE→E+T
o E→E−TE \rightarrow E - TE→E−T
o E→TE \rightarrow TE→T
 TTT (middle precedence):
o T→T∗FT \rightarrow T * FT→T∗F
o T→T/FT \rightarrow T / FT→T/F
o T→FT \rightarrow FT→F
 FFF (highest precedence):
o F→NF \rightarrow NF→N
o F→NFF \rightarrow N ^ FF→NF
 NNN:
o N→0∣1∣2∣3∣4∣5∣6∣7∣8∣9N \rightarrow 0 \mid 1 \mid 2 \mid 3 \mid 4 \mid 5 \mid 6 \
mid 7 \mid 8 \mid 9N→0∣1∣2∣3∣4∣5∣6∣7∣8∣9

Explanation of Unambiguous Grammar

 Operators with Precedence: +++ and −-− are at the lowest precedence level, ∗*∗

Associativity: Left associativity is enforced for +++, −-−, ∗*∗, and ///, while ^ is right-
and /// are at the middle level, and ^ is at the highest level.

associative.

This modification ensures that each expression in the grammar GGG has a unique parse tree,
thereby making the grammar unambiguous.

Conclusion
The original grammar GGG, due to the lack of explicitly defined precedence and associativity
rules, is ambiguous. However, by defining explicit rules for precedence and associativity in the
unambiguous grammar, we ensure that each expression generates a unique parse tree, thus
resolving ambiguity.

3.5
Explain Closure properties of regular language.
ChatGPT

The closure properties of regular languages refer to certain properties or operations that can be
applied to regular languages, resulting in another regular language. These properties are essential
in formal language theory and provide insights into the nature and structure of regular languages.
Here's an explanation of the key closure properties of regular languages:

Closure Properties of Regular Languages

1. Union (Closure under Union):

∪L2 is also a regular language.

o If L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2 are regular languages, then L1∪L2L_1 \cup L_2L1

o Explanation: The union of two regular languages L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2

consists of all strings that belong to either L1L_1L1 or L2L_2L2 (or both).
Regular languages are closed under union because if we have two DFAs (or
equivalently, regular expressions) recognizing L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2, we can

∪L2.
construct a DFA (or regular expression) that recognizes L1∪L2L_1 \cup L_2L1

2. Concatenation (Closure under Concatenation):

o If L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2 are regular languages, then
L1⋅L2={xy∣x∈L1,y∈L2}L_1 \cdot L_2 = \{ xy \mid x \in L_1, y \in L_2 \}L1⋅L2
={xy∣x∈L1,y∈L2} is also a regular language.
o Explanation: Concatenation of two regular languages L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2
produces a language where each string is formed by concatenating a string from
L1L_1L1 followed by a string from L2L_2L2. Regular languages are closed
under concatenation because we can construct a DFA that recognizes the
concatenated language by combining DFAs for L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2.
3. Kleene Star (Closure under Kleene Star):
o If LLL is a regular language, then L∗={w1w2…wk∣k≥0,wi∈L}L^* = \{ w_1
w_2 \ldots w_k \mid k \geq 0, w_i \in L \}L∗={w1w2…wk∣k≥0,wi∈L} is also a
regular language.
o Explanation: The Kleene star operation L∗L^*L∗ represents the set of all
strings that can be formed by concatenating zero or more strings from LLL.
Regular languages are closed under Kleene star because we can construct a DFA
that recognizes L∗L^*L∗ by modifying the original DFA for LLL.
4. Intersection (Closure under Intersection):
o If L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2 are regular languages, then L1∩L2L_1 \cap L_2L1
∩L2 is also a regular language.
 Explanation: The intersection of two regular languages L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2
o
consists of all strings that belong to both L1L_1L1 and L2L_2L2. Regular
languages are closed under intersection because we can construct a DFA that
recognizes L1∩L2L_1 \cap L_2L1∩L2 using the product construction of DFAs.
5. Complementation (Closure under Complementation):
o If LLL is a regular language, then L‾\overline{L}L, the complement of LLL, is
also a regular language.
o Explanation: The complement of a regular language LLL consists of all strings
over the alphabet that are not in LLL. Regular languages are closed under
complementation because we can construct a DFA that recognizes L‾\
overline{L}L by simply swapping the accepting and non-accepting states of the
original DFA for LLL.

Summary

Closure properties of regular languages provide a foundation for understanding their

computational properties and relationships. These properties demonstrate that regular languages
are closed under basic set operations (union, concatenation, intersection) and structural
operations (Kleene star, complementation), making them a well-defined and analytically
tractable class of languages in formal language theory.

Design a two stack PDA for the language L={an b n c n | n>=1

Designing a two-stack Pushdown Automaton (PDA) for the language L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \{a^n
b^n c^n \mid n \geq 1 \}L={anbncn∣n≥1} involves using two stacks to match the counts of aaa,
bbb, and ccc in the string. Here’s how we can construct such a PDA:

Two-Stack PDA Design

Stack Usage:

 Stack 1: Used to count aaa's.

 Stack 2: Used to count bbb's.

State Transitions:

1. Initial State: Push a marker symbol (e.g., #\##) onto both stacks to signify the start.
2. Counting aaa's:
o For each aaa encountered in the input, push onto Stack 1.
3. Matching bbb's with aaa's:
o For each bbb encountered in the input, pop from Stack 1 (to match aaa's).
4. Counting ccc's:
o For each ccc encountered in the input, push onto Stack 2.
5. Final State:
o Ensure both stacks are empty when all input symbols are processed to accept the
string.
Detailed Transition Description:

 Initial State: Push #\## onto both stacks.

 Processing aaa's: Transition to a state where for each aaa, push onto Stack 1.
 Matching bbb's with aaa's: Once bbb is encountered, transition to a state where for each
bbb, pop from Stack 1.
 Processing ccc's: After all bbb's are matched with aaa's, transition to a state where for
each ccc, push onto Stack 2.
 Final State: After processing all ccc's, transition to a final state where check if both
stacks are empty. If so, accept; otherwise, reject.

Example Transition Diagram:

sql
Copy code
Initial State:
- Push '#' to both Stack 1 and Stack 2.

Processing 'a':
- Push 'a' to Stack 1.

Matching 'b' with 'a':

- Pop 'a' from Stack 1 for each 'b'.

Processing 'c':
- Push 'c' to Stack 2.

Final State:
- Check if both Stack 1 and Stack 2 are empty.
- Accept if empty; otherwise, reject.

Conclusion

This design ensures that the PDA correctly verifies strings in the language L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \
{a^n b^n c^n \mid n \geq 1 \}L={anbncn∣n≥1} using two stacks to maintain counts of aaa's and
bbb's separately, and then matching them with ccc's. The use of two stacks allows for a non-
trivial check on the equality of the counts of aaa's, bbb's, and ccc's in the string, which cannot be
done with a single-stack PDA.

3.5
Generate CFG for the given PDA M is defined as M = ({q0, q1}, {0,1} {x, z0}, δ, q0, z0, q1)
where δ is given as follows: δ (q0,1, z0) = (q0, xz0) δ (q0,1, x) = (q0, xx) δ (q0,0, x) = (q0, x) δ
(q0, ε, x) = (q1, ε) δ (q1, ε, x) = (q1, ε) δ (q1,0, x) = (q1, xx) δ (q1,0, z0) = ( q1, ε)
ChatGPT

To generate a context-free grammar (CFG) equivalent to the given pushdown automaton (PDA),
we will translate the transitions of the PDA into productions of the CFG. Here's the step-by-step
process:
Given PDA Transitions:

The PDA MMM is defined with states Q={q0,q1}Q = \{ q0, q1 \}Q={q0,q1}, input symbols
Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}Σ={0,1}, stack symbols Γ={x,z0}\Gamma = \{ x, z0 \}Γ={x,z0},
initial state q0q0q0, initial stack symbol z0z0z0, and final state q1q1q1.

The transitions are defined as follows:

 δ(q0,1,z0)=(q0,xz0)\delta(q0, 1, z0) = (q0, xz0)δ(q0,1,z0)=(q0,xz0)

 δ(q0,1,x)=(q0,xx)\delta(q0, 1, x) = (q0, xx)δ(q0,1,x)=(q0,xx)
 δ(q0,0,x)=(q0,x)\delta(q0, 0, x) = (q0, x)δ(q0,0,x)=(q0,x)
 δ(q0,ϵ,x)=(q1,ϵ)\delta(q0, \epsilon, x) = (q1, \epsilon)δ(q0,ϵ,x)=(q1,ϵ)
 δ(q1,ϵ,x)=(q1,ϵ)\delta(q1, \epsilon, x) = (q1, \epsilon)δ(q1,ϵ,x)=(q1,ϵ)
 δ(q1,0,x)=(q1,xx)\delta(q1, 0, x) = (q1, xx)δ(q1,0,x)=(q1,xx)
 δ(q1,0,z0)=(q1,ϵ)\delta(q1, 0, z0) = (q1, \epsilon)δ(q1,0,z0)=(q1,ϵ)

Constructing the CFG:

We will construct a CFG G=(V,Σ,R,S)G = (V, \Sigma, R, S)G=(V,Σ,R,S) where:

 VVV is the set of variables (non-terminals),

 Σ\SigmaΣ is the set of terminals (input symbols),
 RRR is the set of productions (rules),
 SSS is the start variable.

Step-by-Step Construction:

1. Variables (Non-terminals):
o SSS: Start variable.
2. Terminals (Input symbols):
o Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}Σ={0,1}.
3. Productions (Rules):
o For each transition δ(q,a,X)=(q′,Y)\delta(q, a, X) = (q', Y)δ(q,a,X)=(q′,Y):
 If YYY is a stack symbol:
 Replace XXX on the stack with YYY.
 If YYY is ϵ\epsilonϵ (pop operation):
 Remove XXX from the stack.

Here are the productions based on the transitions:

o S→0S∣1S∣AS \rightarrow 0S \mid 1S \mid AS→0S∣1S∣A

o A→1B∣0CA \rightarrow 1B \mid 0CA→1B∣0C
o B→1D∣0AB \rightarrow 1D \mid 0AB→1D∣0A

3.5
Design a Turing Machine for the language: L={an b n c n | n>=1}
ChatGPT

Designing a Turing Machine (TM) for the language L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \{ a^n b^n c^n \mid n \
geq 1 \}L={anbncn∣n≥1} involves constructing a machine that can verify whether a string
conforms to the pattern where the number of aaa's, bbb's, and ccc's are all equal and greater than
or equal to 1. Here's how we can design such a TM:

Turing Machine Design

Tape Alphabet:

o ⊔\sqcup⊔ represents the blank symbol.

 Σ={a,b,c,⊔}\Sigma = \{ a, b, c, \sqcup \}Σ={a,b,c,⊔}

States:

 Q={q0,qa,qb,qc,qaccept,qreject}Q = \{ q_0, q_a, q_b, q_c, q_accept, q_reject \}Q={q0

,qa,qb,qc,qaccept,qreject}
o q0q_0q0: Initial state.
o qa,qb,qcq_a, q_b, q_cqa,qb,qc: States to count aaa's, bbb's, and ccc's respectively.
o qacceptq_acceptqaccept: Accepting state.
o qrejectq_rejectqreject: Rejecting state.

Transition Function:

1. Initialize and Scan aaa's:

o From q0q_0q0:
 Move right until finding aaa (if not aaa, reject).
 Replace aaa with XXX (mark aaa) and transition to qaq_aqa.
2. Count aaa's:
o From qaq_aqa:
 Move right while scanning aaa's, replacing each aaa with XXX.
 If bbb is encountered, transition to qbq_bqb.
3. Count bbb's:
o From qbq_bqb:
 Move right while scanning bbb's, replacing each bbb with YYY.
 If ccc is encountered, transition to qcq_cqc.
4. Count ccc's:
o From qcq_cqc:
 Move right while scanning ccc's, replacing each ccc with ZZZ.
 If end of input (⊔\sqcup⊔) is encountered, move left to check the counts.
5. Check Equality of Counts:
o From qcq_cqc:
 Move left, checking each symbol:
 If XXX, move left.
 If YYY, move left.
 If ⊔\sqcup⊔:
 If ZZZ, move left.

 If counts of XXX, YYY, and ZZZ are equal and greater
than 0, transition to qacceptq_acceptqaccept.
 Otherwise, transition to qrejectq_rejectqreject.

Transition Diagram:

rust
Copy code
q_0: a -> X [R] q_a
b, c -> reject

q_a: a -> X [R] q_a

b -> Y [R] q_b

q_b: b -> Y [R] q_b

c -> Z [R] q_c

q_c: c -> Z [R] q_c

_ -> [L] check_counts

check_counts: X -> [L] check_counts

Y -> [L] check_counts
Z -> [L] check_counts
_ -> [R] reject

check_counts: X -> [L] check_counts

Y -> [L] check_counts
Z -> [L] check_counts
_ -> [R] accept

Explanation:

 Initialization: The TM starts by marking aaa's with XXX and counting them in state
qaq_aqa.
 Counting: It then counts bbb's by marking them with YYY in state qbq_bqb, and ccc's

Checking: After encountering ⊔\sqcup⊔ (end of input), it moves left to verify that the
by marking them with ZZZ in state qcq_cqc.

counts of XXX, YYY, and ZZZ are equal and greater than 0.
 Accept/Reject: If counts are equal and greater than 0, it accepts; otherwise, it rejects.

This Turing Machine ensures that it only accepts strings where the counts of aaa's, bbb's, and
ccc's are all equal and at least 1, thereby recognizing the language L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \{ a^n
b^n c^n \mid n \geq 1 \}L={anbncn∣n≥1}.

3.5
Write short notes on: (i) Variants of Turing Machine (ii) Post Correspondence problem (iii)
Universal Turing Machine
ChatGPT
Sure, here are short notes on each of these topics:

(i) Variants of Turing Machine

Turing Machines (TMs) are theoretical models of computation introduced by Alan Turing in
1936. Over time, several variants of Turing Machines have been studied, each exploring different
capabilities or restrictions:

1. Multi-Tape Turing Machine: A TM with multiple tapes, each with its own head. This
model can simulate certain computations more efficiently than a single-tape TM.
2. Non-deterministic Turing Machine (NTM): A TM where at each step, the machine can
have multiple choices for the next state and transition. It accepts if at least one
computation path accepts.
3. Alternating Turing Machine: A non-deterministic TM where the transition function is
based on an alternating sequence of existential and universal quantifiers, allowing for
more complex decision-making.
4. Quantum Turing Machine: A theoretical extension of TMs that incorporates principles
of quantum mechanics, including superposition and entanglement, potentially allowing
for exponentially faster computation for certain problems.
5. Probabilistic Turing Machine: A TM that incorporates randomness into its
computation, where transitions have associated probabilities. It accepts an input if there
exists at least one computation path that accepts with probability greater than a threshold.
6. Oracle Turing Machine: A TM with an additional tape called an oracle tape, which can
provide instant solutions to specific computational problems. This model is used to study
complexity classes beyond those of standard TMs.

(ii) Post Correspondence Problem

The Post Correspondence Problem (PCP) is a classic problem in computer science and
mathematics:

 Problem Statement: Given a set of dominoes, each with two strings (top and bottom),
determine if there exists a sequence of these dominoes such that when stacked one on top
of the other, the sequence of tops matches the sequence of bottoms.
 Formal Definition: Given a finite set D={(s1,t1),(s2,t2),…,(sk,tk)}D = \{ (s_1, t_1),
(s_2, t_2), \ldots, (s_k, t_k) \}D={(s1,t1),(s2,t2),…,(sk,tk)} of dominoes where si,tis_i,
t_isi,ti are strings over an alphabet Σ\SigmaΣ, does there exist a sequence i1,i2,…,imi_1,
i_2, \ldots, i_mi1,i2,…,im such that si1si2…sim=ti1ti2…tims_{i_1} s_{i_2} \ldots
s_{i_m} = t_{i_1} t_{i_2} \ldots t_{i_m}si1si2…sim=ti1ti2…tim?
 Computational Complexity: PCP is undecidable in general (no algorithm exists that can
solve it for all instances), but it is semi-decidable (recognizable). It is a fundamental
problem used to prove undecidability results in theoretical computer science.

(iii) Universal Turing Machine

A Universal Turing Machine (UTM) is a theoretical construct that embodies the notion of a
general-purpose computing machine capable of simulating any Turing Machine:

 Definition: A UTM is a TM UUU that takes as input a description of another TM MMM

and an input for MMM, and simulates the computation of MMM on that input.
 Components:
o Tape: Contains the description of TM MMM followed by the input for MMM.
o State Control: Implements the transition function of MMM based on the current
state and symbol read from the tape.
o Universal Program: The UTM's transition function includes mechanisms to
interpret the description of MMM and simulate its operation.
 Significance: The UTM concept is pivotal in the theory of computation as it
demonstrates that there exists a single universal model of computation that can simulate
any algorithmic process that can be computed by any other TM.
 Limitations: While conceptually powerful, real-world computers are not UTMs due to
practical limitations such as finite memory and processing speed.

These topics illustrate various extensions and fundamental problems in theoretical computer
science, each contributing to our understanding of computation and its limits.