Chapter-1

Introduction
1. Introduction to Function.
Functions are fundamental to comprehending the relationships
between various variables and are like the beating heart of
mathematics.
A function generates a distinct output from an input. In addition to
mathematics, this relationship between inputs and outputs is
essential in daily life and many other domains.
In our daily lives, we come across a variety of functions, ranging
from straightforward algebraic functions like linear equations to
more complex transcendental functions like logarithmic and
trigonometric functions. However, we lack the necessary
knowledge to identify which type of function we employ, so
studying functions can play a vital role in our lives.
These concepts may appear difficult, but they are effective tools
for solving real-world problems. For example, engineers use
functions to design structures, whereas economists use them to
forecast market trends. The purpose of this report is to break
down these key concepts of functions, explore their types, and
demonstrate how they can be applied in various scenarios.
1.1 Objective of the Report
The report focuses on mathematical functions, particularly
algebraic and transcendental sets of functions. In order to better
understand a function, we try to define it and explain the major
components that make it up.
Furthermore, the report will discuss the importance of functions in
various fields and how they can be applied practically. We will
challenge students' critical thinking and problem-solving abilities
by presenting function-related problems. The main purpose of the
report is to increase interest in advanced math concepts.

1.2 Significance of the Study

Understanding functions is critical for students in the educational
line because they serve as the foundation for higher-order
learning in mathematics. This study will improve critical thinking
by allowing students to analyze the relationship between variables
and thus learn more about real-world problems. Furthermore,
learning functions provides preparation for future studies in
calculus and data analysis. Finally, this could help to foster an
interest in mathematics and lifelong learning.

1.3 Limitations of the Study

The current study of functions has some limitations: it is limited to
core concepts and fails to represent the complexity of higher-
order functions that the student may encounter later on. The
examples provided may also not reflect the wide range of
applications for functions in real life. Furthermore, adhering strictly
to textbook definitions may limit one’s broad perspective on these
topics in life, and the context used here is Grade 11 mathematics,
which may limit some perspectives that could have been gained
through higher education.

Chapter- 2
Methodology
2.1 Research Desgin
The study was divided into two phases: theoretical and practical.
The theoretical components included textbooks, online resources,
and classroom notes to learn about various types of functions. In
the practical section, problem-solving techniques were used, and
functions were examined using various apps.

2.2 Data collection instruments

For this study, the following were used:

Textbooks: These were the primary resources to define

functions, understand and learn various concepts of the functions.

Graphing Calculator: A graphing calculator was essential to

visualize the functions and plot graphs of various functions. It
helped in identifying the various functions too.

Online websites: Various Online websites were used to pick the

pictures used in the report similarly other problems were also
taken through the help of the online websites.
2.3 Data Analysis techniques
First, various functions such as linear, quadratic, and exponential were
categorized based on their general form.

 Linear functions were studied using the form y=mx+b (slope-

intercept form).
 Quadratic functions were studied through y= ax^2 + bx + c
focusing on the shape of the parabola, vertex, and axis of
symmetry.
 Exponential functions were studied using y=a⋅b^x, with attention
to growth and decay behaviors.

Chapter-III
Findings and Representation
3.1 Basics of Function
A function is a mathematical relationship between two sets of
numbers in which each input has a single output. Functions can
be used to describe a wide range of real-world scenarios,
including calculating distance over time and population growth.
Quadratic functions (parabolas) and linear functions (straight
lines) are two common types of functions. Functions can be
represented as equations, graphs, or tables. Understanding the
fundamentals of functions aids in pattern analysis and problem
solving in both mathematical and real-world settings.
3.2 Composite of Function
A composite function is the combination of two or more functions
to create a new one. If we have two functions, f(x) and g(x), the
composite of these functions is f (g(x)), where the output of g(x)
becomes the input of f(x). This is useful in advanced mathematics
because it allows us to model complex relationships in which one
process depends on another.
A real-world example could be calculating the total cost of
something. For example, let the function f(x) calculate fuel
consumption based on the distance traveled, where x represents
the distance. The function f(g(x)) then computes the total cost by
multiplying fuel consumption by the price per liter. The composite
function g(f(x)) calculates the total fuel cost for the trip based on
the distance traveled.

3.3 Inverse of Function

Inverse functions reverse the behavior of a function. If f(x) has
input x and output y, the inverse function f^−1(x) reverses the
process, using y as input and x as output.
A function needs to be one-to-one in order to have an inverse.
This merely indicates that no two values can result in the same
f(x) value, meaning that f can never take on the same value twice.
A function is said to be one-to-one according to the horizontal line
test if and only if a horizontal line cannot cross its graph more
than once.
Note: f (f -1(x)) = x and f -1(f(x)) = x
The inverse function has a domain that is equivalent to the
original function's range and a range that is equivalent to the
original function's domain; thus, if a function has a domain of A
and a range of B, the inverse function will have a domain of B and
a range of A.

Example: Find the inverse of f(x) = 3x ÷ 4

Soln:

Rewriting using y instead of f(x): y = 3x ÷4

Isolate for x: 4y = 3x

Or, 4y÷x = 3

Switch x and y and replace y with f -1(x): f -1(x) = 4x ÷3

A real-life example is the process of converting Celsius to

Fahrenheit. So, the function F(C) converts Celsius to Fahrenheit,
while the inverse function C (F) converts Fahrenheit back to
Celsius. This demonstrates how the process can be reversed.
3.4 Real valued function and real
function
3.4.1 Operations on Real Valued Function
A function f: A→B is real-valued if B is a subset of R. A real
function is defined as one that produces real numbers as its
outputs. A real-valued function's domain and range are
determined by its inputs and outputs from the set of real numbers.
The domain includes all possible valid inputs for the function.
The operation of real functions is as follows:
1. Addition of Two Real Functions
Let f and g be two distinct real-valued functions defined as f:X→R
and g:X→R, respectively, where X⊂R. The addition of two real
functions, (f + g):X→R, can be expressed as follows:
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X
2. Subtraction of a Real Function
Let f and g be two distinct real-valued functions, defined as f:
X→R and g:X→R, where X⊂R. The subtraction of these two real
functions is defined as (f−g):X→R, and is expressed as follows:
(f – g ) (x) = f(x) –g (x), for all x ∈ X
3. Multiplication of Two Real Functions
Let f and g be two distinct real-valued functions, defined as f:X→
and g:X→R, where X is a subset of the real numbers. The
multiplication of these functions is defined as (fg):X→R, which can
be expressed as:
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X
4. Division of Two Real Functions
Let f and g be two distinct real-valued functions, defined as f:X→R
and g:X→R, where X⊂R. The division of these two real functions
is defined as (fg):X→R, which can be expressed as follows:
(f / g) (x) = f(x) / g(x), for all x ∈ X

3.4.2 Types of real functions

1. Algebraic Function 2. Transcendental Function

3.5 Algebraic Function

Algebraic functions are those obtained by performing algebraic
operations on the independent variable x, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, or raising a rational power.
Some of the algebraic functions are polynomial function, linear
function, quadratic function, constant function and identity
function.
1. Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is an expression that includes variables
raised to non-negative integer powers.
Its general form is:

2. Linear Function
A linear function is defined as f(x)=mx+b, where m represents the
slope (rate of change) and b is the y-intercept (value at x=0).
3. Quadratic Function
A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where
a, b, and c are numbers with a not equal to zero.

4. Constant Function
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A constant function, defined as
y:f(x)=c for all x∈A and c∈B, is a function from A to B.
5. Identity Function

as y = f(x) = x for all x ∈ A is called an identity function

Let A be a non-empty set. Then the function f: A → A is defined
3.6 Transcendental Functions
Transcendental functions are not algebraic and cannot be
expressed through a limited set of basic mathematical operations.
These functions are frequently used in complex mathematical
contexts, including growth rates, recurring patterns, and
interconnected relationships.

3.6.1 Trigonometric Function

Transcendental functions are not algebraic and cannot be

expressed through a limited set of basic mathematical
operations. These functions are frequently used in
common Trigonometric functions, including sine, cosine, and
tangent, are periodic functions based on angles that can be

returns the sine of an angle 𝑥. These functions are critical for

defined using the unit circle. For example, f(x) = sin(x)

describing waves, oscillations, and circular motion in physics

and engineering.

3.6.2 Exponential Function

A function f: R → R defined by y = f(x) = ax for all x ∈ R,
where "a” is a positive real number and a ≠ 1 is called
exponential function with base “a”. One of the popular
exponential functions is f(x) = ex, where 'e' is "Euler's
number" and e = 2.718.
Note: Before plotting the above graph the following things
should be remembered:-
i) All exponential functions intersect at (0,1)
ii) If a> 1 then ax is an increasing function and 0<a<1 then
decreasing function.
 iii) The domain of all exponential functions is R and range is
(0, ∞)

3.6.3 Logarithmic Function

The logarithmic function is an inverse function to

exponentiation. The logarithmic function is defined as f(x) =
loga x the base of the logarithm is a. This can be read it as
log base a of x. The most 2 common bases used in
logarithmic functions are base 10 and base e.

3.7 Curve Sketching

3.7.1 Even and Odd functions
A function is said to be an even function if f (-x) = f(x) for all x
in the domain of f. thus in an even function if x is replaced by
–x there will be no change in the curve of the equation.
A function is said to be a odd function if f (-x) = -f(x) for all x
in the domain of f.
Special Properties

Adding:

 The sum of two even functions is even

 The sum of two odd functions is odd
 The sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor
odd (unless one function is zero).

Multiplying:

 The product of two even functions is an even function.

 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even function and an odd function is an
odd function.

3.7.2 Periodicity of Functions

Transcendental functions are not algebraic and cannot be

expressed through a limited set of basic mathematical
operations. These functions are frequently used in
common A function y= f(x) is said to be periodic if there
exists a positive real number P such that f(x + P) = f(x), for
all x in the real numbers. A function's fundamental period is
the least value of the positive real number P. This
fundamental period of a function is also known as the
function's period of repetition. f(x + P) equals f(x).

The sine function is a periodic function with a period of 2π.

Sin (2π + x) = Sinx.

Note: The most frequently occurring periodic functions are

trigonometric functions.

3.7.3 Symmetry of Elementary Functions

X-Axis Symmetry

If a graph has two points (a, b) and (a, -b) such that f (a, b) =
f (a, -b), it is symmetrical along the X-axis. When b is
changed to -b, it stays the same because it only contains the
even powers of b.
Y-Axis Symmetry
A curve is symmetrical about y axis if the equation has only
even powers of x and it remains unchanged when x is
replaced by –x. it is a reflective symmetry about y axis.

Symmetry about Origin

A curve is symmetrical about the opposite quadrants if the
equation remains unchanged when x is replaced by –x and y
by –y simultaneously.
3.7.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
-Increasing Function - A function f(x) is said to be
increasing on an interval I if for any two numbers x and y in I
such that x < y, we have f(x) ≤ f(y).

-Decreasing Function - A function f(x) is said to be

decreasing on an interval I if for any two numbers x and y in I
such that x < y, we have f(x) ≥ f(y).

Also id f(x) > f(y) whenever x<y then f is said to be strictly

decreasing. Increasing and decreasing functions are also
called monotonic functions.

3.7.5 Asymptote
An asymptote of the curve y = f(x) or in the implicit form:
f(x,y) = 0 is a straight line such that the distance between the
curve and the straight line lends to zero when the points on
the curve approach infinity.
When x approaches some constant value c from left or right,
the curve moves towards infinity (i.e., ∞), or -infinity (i.e., -
∞) and this is called Vertical Asymptote.
 When x moves to infinity or -infinity, the curve approaches
some constant value b, and is called a Horizontal
Asymptote.

3.8 Continuity of Function

3.8.1 Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a, in its
domain if the following three conditions are satisfied:

i) f (a) exists (i.e. the value of f(a) is finite)

ii) Limx→a f(x) exists (i.e. the right-hand limit = left-hand

limit, and both are finite)

iii) Limx→a f(x) = f (a)

3.8.2 Types of Discontinuity

-Jump Discontinuity
The function at x = a has both a right-hand limit and a left-hand
limit in this kind of discontinuity, but they are not equal.

-Infinite Discontinuity
At x = a, the function diverges, giving it a discontinuous nature. In
other words, f (a) is not defined.
The limits of the function as x → a is also not defined because the
value of the function at x = a tends to infinity or doesn't approach
a specific finite value.

-Point Discontinuity
This is a category of discontinuity in which the function has a well-
defined two-sided limit at x = a, but either f (a) is not defined or f (a)
is not equal to its limit. i.e. Limx→af(x) ≠f (a)

This type of discontinuity is also known as a Removable

Discontinuity since it can be easily eliminated by redefining
the function.

3.8.3 Properties of Continuous Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) be two real functions continuous at x=a and k be a
real number then

i) kf ii) f+g iii) fg iv) f/g; g (a) ≠ 0

These above are the properties of continuous functions.

3.8.4 Examples of Continuous Function

 A constant function f(x) = c is continuous on R.

 An identity function f(x) = x is continuous on R.

 Every polynomial function is continuous on R.

 Sine and Cosine are continuous on R but tangent is

discontinuous at π/2 and its odd integral multiples.

 ex is continuous on R and lnx is continuous on R+.

Chapter-4

Conclusion

4.1 Conclusion
The examination of functions is crucial in mathematics and its use in
numerous disciplines. Functions serve as the basis for comprehending
the connections between variables, enabling the examination of how
alterations in one quantity influence changes in another quantity. By
thoroughly examining various function types like linear, quadratic,
polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, and others, we have acquired
important knowledge about their distinct characteristics and behaviors,
as well as their applications across different domains thanks to these
unique traits. These characteristics extend beyond mathematics, aiding
in areas like physics, economics, engineering, computer science, and
others. In this report, we have explored how functions can be defined,
depicted, and analyzed through both graphical and algebraic means.
Function graphs offer a visual depiction of variable interactions,
showcasing important details like trends, slopes, intercepts, and
asymptotic behavior. Additionally, the examination of functions presents
ideas such as domain, range, continuity, limits, and asymptotes that
facilitate a thorough analysis of functions and their characteristics.
Grasping continuity, for example, is essential in calculus when
examining limits and derivatives, whereas acknowledging the domain
and range guarantees that functions are utilized correctly within
specified constraints.

In summary, a fundamental component of both theoretical and applied

mathematics is the study of functions. They are essential tools for
analyzing and resolving a wide range of issues in different fields in both
our personal and professional lives because of their depth and
versatility.