Unit 1

Essentials of Medical Terminology

HPRS 1206

Unit 1 Objectives

In this unit, students will learn how to:

● Break down medical words into their component parts

● Identify different parts of a medical word

● Recall basic anatomical structures such as body planes, abdominopelvic regions and
quadrants, positions and directions and parts of the vertebral column
● Define a variety of common prefixes and suffixes used in the medical language

● Label anatomical structures, recall new word parts, diseases/disorders and abbreviations
associated with the integumentary system

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 Basic Word Structure
Chapter 1

Medical Terminology – the ___________________ of dividing words and ________________

medical words into component parts. Analyzation of words will make the understanding of
_________________________ terminology __________________.

Word parts come from two language origins:

1.
2.

Examples: (please look up the word parts in the textbook glossary)

Hypo-
Sub-
Dermat/o -
Cutane/o -

Five basic word parts:

A. Root word – _________________________ of the medical word, usually a body part

Examples (fill in the definitions from the glossary in the back of the textbook):
cardi-
gastr-
cyt-
cephal-
hemat-

A medical term can have ___________________________________ root words.

B. Suffixes – word _______________________, suffixes will begin with a dash in the

glossary of the textbook. Students will generally read from the suffix of the word back
to the beginning of the word to understand its meaning.
Noun Suffixes: Examples (fill in the definitions from the glossary in the back of the
textbook):
-itis =
-logy =
-lysis =

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 -megaly =
-cyte =
-algia =

Adjective Suffixes: Examples (fill in from the glossary in the back of the textbook)
-al nas/al =

-ac cardi/ac =

-ary

-ar

-ic hepat/ic =

-ical

Most medical terms will have a ___________________________________.

C. Prefixes- word ______________________, will have a dash at the end of the word part
in the glossary of the textbook.
Examples (fill in from the glossary in the back of the textbook):
bi- =
pre- =
sub- =
epi- =
peri- =
a- =
auto- =
hyper- =
hypo- =

______________ all medical words have a ____________________________.

D. Combining Vowel – a vowel that links a root word to the suffix or a root word to
another root word, usually the letter _______, vowel has no meaning of its own.

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 Rules for combining word parts (when to use a combining vowel):
1. When the word part ends and the next word part begins with a
_____________________ use a _________________ ______________.
Examples: hemat/o/logy
rhin/o/plasty

2. When the word part ends with a ____________________ and the next word
part begins with a vowel, do _________ use a combining vowel
Examples: gastr/itis
enter/itis
nas/al

3. When the word part ends with a ________________and ________________

with a consonant, do not use a combining vowel.
Example: epi/gastr/ic

E. Combining form – a root word plus a combining vowel. In the glossary, there will be a
slash after the root word and then a vowel.
Examples (fill in from the glossary in the back of the textbook):
hemat/o =
cardi/o =
gastr/o =
oste/o =

How to break down medical terms

1. Turn to the glossary in the textbook. We will use the word “rhinoplasty” for this
example.
2. Go to the first letter of the word
Example: R
3. Continue looking for letters that follow in the word until you no longer have letters in
the glossary
Example: R, Rh, Rhi, Rhin, Rhin/o
4. Record the meaning of the word part
Example: rhin/o = nose

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 5. Then start with the next letter in the word
Example: -p, -pl, -pla, -plas, -plasty
6. Record the meaning of the word part
Example: -plasty = surgical repair
7. Write the definition of the medical term starting with the suffix
Example: Rhinoplasty = surgical repair of the nose

Do not use paragraph definitions from the textbook; students will want to learn the skill of
using the meaning of individual word parts to write definitions of medical terms

Review: Divide into parts and define as previously learned:

subgastric

biology

gastroenterology

osteoarthritis

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 Body as a Whole
Chapter 2

Write the root word for cell from the glossary:

Write the suffix for cell from the glossary (hint: suffixes will start with a dash):

I. Cell:
(refer to figures in the textbook)
Cell membrane -
Nucleus -
Chromosome -
Cytoplasm -

Metabolism –
A. Cata/bol/ism –
B. Ana/bol/ism -

II. Tissue:
Root Word: __________________

Four Types of Tissue

A. Epithelial Tissue:

B. Muscle Tissue:

C. Connective Tissue:

D. Nerve Tissue:

** Be able to identify different types of tissues and where they are located

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III. Organs:
Using the glossary in the textbook, write the combining form(s) for each organ:
Heart:

Kidney:

Liver:

Gallbladder:

Stomach:

Intestines:

Lung:

Bladder:

Ear:

Rib:

Nose:

Eye:

IV. Body systems:

Cells -> Tissues - > Organs -> Body System

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 V. More Words
Incision vs Excision – How does the prefix change these two words?
A surgeon would have to make an incision into the body in order to excise (remove) the
appendix

Suffixes – what is the difference in the meaning of these two suffixes?

-sis
-osis

VI. Body Cavities -

List examples of structures located in each body cavity:
A. Crani/al -
B. Thorac/ic -
C. Abdomin/al -
D. Pelv/ic -
E. Spin/al -
**Be able to locate body cavities on a diagram

VII. Nine Abdominopelvic Regions – these are regions of the abdomen and pelvic cavities that
are identified from the patients’ point of view (i.e. the patients right or the patients left)

A. Right hypochondriac region

B. Epigastric region
C. Left hypochondriac region
D. Right lumbar region
E. Umbilical region
F. Left lumbar region
G. Right inguinal (iliac) region
H. Hypogastric region
I. Left inguinal (iliac) region

**Be able to locate abdominopelvic regions on a diagram and name a few of the organs in each
abdominopelvic cavity**

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VIII. Quadrants of the Body - The abdominopelvic area is divided into four quadrants by one
vertical line and one horizontal line. Assessment findings, organs, etc… are described by
quadrant they are located within (from the patients’ point of view)
List several organs located in each quadrant:
RUQ -
LUQ -
RLQ -
LLQ –
**Be able to locate abdominopelvic quadrants and organs in each quadrant on a diagram

IX. Anatomical Regions of the Spinal Column - The spinal column is divided into 5 regions; like the
abdominopelvic regions, assessment findings and diagnoses are named by region and then
by vertebrae number
A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

**Be able to locate regions of the spinal column on a diagram.

X. Positional and Directional Terms (remember, always recorded from the patients point of
view). Take some time to learn these terms as they are used every day in the healthcare
environment.
A. Anterior (Ventral) -

B. Posterior (Dorsal) –

C. Deep –

D. Superficial –

E. Proximal –

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 F. Distal –

G. Inferior –

H. Superior –

I. Medial –

J. Lateral -

K. Supine -

L. Prone -

Terms for the Digestive System

● The digestive system is one long tract beginning with the mouth and ending with the
anus.

● When using position and directional terms for the digestive tract, students must
consider which portion is closest to the mouth and which term is closest to the anus.

● For example: The esophagus is proximal to the large intestine (the esophagus comes
first in the order of the digestive system)

● Order of the Digestive System:

- Mouth
- _________________________________
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small Intestine
● ___________________________

● Jejunum

● Ileum
- Large Intestine
● Cecum

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 ● _______________________________ colon

● Transverse colon

● Descending colon

● _____________________________ colon

● Rectum
- Anus
Position and Direction Examples: select the term that best describes the location
The intestines are ___________________________ to the heart. (superior, inferior)
The esophagus lies __________________________ to the stomach. (proximal, distal)
The spinal cord is ___________________________ to the stomach. (anterior, posterior)
The navel is located on the ________________ surface of the body. (anterior, posterior)
The ankle is ________________________________ to the knee. (proximal, distal)
The ear is __________________________________ to the nose. (medial, lateral)
The shoulder is _____________________________ to the wrist. (proximal, distal)

XI. Body Planes: Define and locate on a diagram (refer to the Figure in the textbook)

A. Frontal (coronal):

B. Sagittal (lateral):

C. Transverse (cross-sectional):

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 Directional Term Examples
For practice, select the term that best describes the relationship of the body parts listed.

1. The phalanges are _______________ to the carpals. (proximal, distal)

2. The big toe is _______________ to the little toe. (medial, lateral)

3. The elbow is ____________________ to the wrist. (proximal, distal)

4. The humerus is __________________ to the radius. (proximal, distal)

5. The __________ end of the upper arm bone is at the shoulder. (proximal, distal)

6. The ___________ end of the thigh bone joins with the kneecap. (proximal, distal)

7. The stomach is _____________________ to the esophagus. (proximal, distal)

8. The anal opening is _____________________ to the intestines. (proximal, distal)

9. The head is ______________________ to the feet. (inferior, superior)

10. The nose is _____________________ to the forehead. (superior, inferior)

11. The left lung lies ____________________ to the heart. (medial, lateral)

12. The diaphragm lies __________________ to the thoracic cavity. (superior, inferior)

13. The ________ end of the esophagus is closest to the stomach. (proximal, distal)

14. The intestines are __________________ to the esophagus. (proximal, distal)

15. The nose is _____________________ to the ears. (medial, lateral)

16. The index (pointer) finger is _________ to the little (pinky) finger. (lateral, medial)

17. The wrist is _____________________ to the fingers. (proximal, distal)

18. The ____________ end of the stomach is at the small intestine. (proximal, distal)

19. The esophagus lies _________________ to the trachea. (anterior, posterior)

20. The umbilicus is on the ______________ surface of the body (anterior, posterior)

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 Directional Term Answer Key
Check your answers to the previous activity

1. The phalanges are _______________ to the carpals. (proximal, distal)

2. The big toe is _______________ to the little toe. (medial, lateral)

3. The elbow is ____________________ to the wrist. (proximal, distal)

4. The humerus is __________________ to the radius. (proximal, distal)

5. The __________ end of the upper arm bone is at the shoulder. (proximal, distal)

6. The ___________ end of the thigh bone joins with the kneecap. (proximal, distal)

7. The stomach is _____________________ to the esophagus. (proximal, distal)

8. The anal opening is _____________________ to the intestines. (proximal, distal)

9. The head is ______________________ to the feet. (inferior, superior)

10. The nose is _____________________ to the forehead. (superior, inferior)

11. The left lung lies ____________________ to the heart. (medial, lateral)

12. The diaphragm lies __________________ to the thoracic cavity. (superior, inferior)

13. The ________ end of the esophagus is closest to the stomach. (proximal, distal)

14. The intestines are __________________ to the esophagus. (proximal, distal)

15. The nose is _____________________ to the ears. (medial, lateral)

16. The index (pointer) finger is _________ to the little (pinky) finger. (lateral, medial)

17. The wrist is _____________________ to the fingers. (proximal, distal)

18. The ____________ end of the stomach is at the small intestine. (proximal, distal)

19. The esophagus lies _________________ to the trachea. (anterior, posterior)

20. The umbilicus is on the ______________ surface of the body (anterior, posterior)

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 Suffixes
Chapter 3

Directions: Using the first glossary, define the suffix and the example medical term using
word part definitions. Remember the rules - if a suffix begins with a vowel, don’t add a
combining vowel. If it starts with a consonant, add a combining vowel. Remember from
Chapter 1, suffixes will be identified in the glossary by a dash at the beginning of the word
part.
Example: -algia = pain arthr/algia = pain in the joint
Suffixes relating to Disease:

-emia = leukemia =

anemia =

-itis = gastritis =

-lith = nephrolithiasis =

-lysis = hemolysis =

-megaly = hepatomegaly =

-malacia = osteomalacia =

-plegia = paraplegia =

-rrhage = hemorrhage =

-rrhea = diarrhea =

rhinorrhea =

-trophy = atrophy =

-oma = osteoma =

-pathy = neuropathy =

Noun Suffixes: define the suffix and the example term using word part definitions.

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 -cele = hernia cyst/o/cele = hernia of the bladder

-coccus = streptococcus =

Plural: - cocci = staphylococci =

-genesis = pathogenesis =

-genic = carcinogenic =

-phobia = arachnophobia =

-ptosis = blepharoptosis =

-sclerosis = arteriosclerosis =

-stasis = venostasis =

-therapy = chemotherapy =

Blood Cells
I. Erythr/o/cytes –
- made in _______________________________.
- contains hemoglobin, which is ____________________________.
- Function: to carry _________________ from lungs through the blood to all
________________ cells.

II. Leuk/o/cytes –
Two major divisions:
A. Granulocytes
-formed in ______________________________________.
Three types
1. Eosinophils -
2. _________________________ -
3. Neutrophils – do not stain red or blue, considered ______________________
II. Leukocytes cont’d.

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 B. Agranulocytes - produced by lymph nodes and _____________.
1. Lymphocytes
EX:
Function: to produce ___________________, which destroy foreign cells
2. Monocytes - cell with ______________ large nucleus
Function: to engulf and ________ cellular debris.

III. Thromb/o/cytes
- formed in the bone marrow
- Function: helps _______________ the blood.

IV. Complex Suffixes

- These are suffixes that contain a _____________________ within them.
- For example:
o the suffix -logy contains the root word log/o
o the suffix -oxia contains the root word ox/o
- Keep in mind, these are still a suffix. Please use the glossary of the textbook to look up
word parts and don’t separate with a line unless it is necessary (see Chapter 1).

Noun Suffixes: Surgical Procedures - define the suffix and the example medical term using

word part definitions

-ectomy = splenectomy =

-stomy = colostomy =

tracheostomy =

-tomy = thoracotomy =

-plasty = rhinoplasty =

-centesis = amniocentesis =

Additional Noun Suffixes

-gram = electroencephalogram =

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 -graph = electroencephalograph =

-graphy = electroencephalography =

-scope = otoscope =

-scopy = otoscopy =

-opsy = biopsy =

Shorter Noun Suffixes = define the suffix and the example medical term using word part
definitions.

-er = teacher =

-ia = pneumonia =

-ist = Nephr/o/log/ist = specialist in the study of

the kidney

gynecologist =

pharmacist =

-ole = arteriole =

-ule = venule =

-um, -ium = pericardium =

-y = neuropathy =

Adjective Suffixes - define the suffix and the example medical term using word part
definitions

-oid = adenoids =

-tic = necrotic =

Singular to Plural terms

It is important to note that more than one item (a plural) is not always accurate when the letter
“s” is added to a term. Please review the following examples:

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 1. Medical terms that end in “-us” form their plural by dropping -us and changing it to “-i”.
For example: the singular term “_____________________” is changed to the plural
term “Bronchi”.
2. Medical terms that end in “a” form their plural by adding an “e”. For example: the
singular term “Bursa” is changed to the plural term “________________________”.
3. Medical terms that end in “-is” form their plural by dropping -is and changing it to “-es”.
For example: the singular term “Epiphysis” is changed to the plural term “Epiphyses”.
4. Medical terms that end in “-um” form their plural by dropping -um and changing it to an
“-a”. For example: the singular term “Ovum” is changed to the plural term
“_____________”.
There are other examples of changing a singular term to a plural term in Appendix I in the
electronic textbook. Please take time to review other examples in the Appendix.

NOTE: Please make individual flashcards or a Quizlet study set for each of the suffixes located
in the course notes. These are the suffixes that are used throughout the course and students
will want to start studying them now so they are memorized.

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 Prefixes
Chapter 4
Pertaining to Numbers: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part
definitions from the glossary. Remember from Chapter 1, prefixes will be identified by a dash
at the end of the word part.

primi- primípara =

mono- mon/o/cyte =

uni- unilateral =

bi- bilateral =

dipl- diplopía =

tri- tricyclic =

quadri- quadriplegia =

multi- multípara =

poly- polyuria =

Pertaining to Direction: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part
definitions from the glossary.
ab- abduction =

ad- adduction =

trans- transdermal =

peri- pericardium =

Pertaining to Degree: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part
definitions from the glossary.
hyper- hypertension =

hypo- hypotension =

brady- brady/card/ia =

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 tachy- tachycardia =

Pertaining to Comparison: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part
definitions from the glossary.

mega-; macro- macrocephalic =

micro- microscope =

neo- neo/nat/al =

dys- dyspnea =

Pertaining to Position or Time: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word
part definitions from the glossary.

ante-; pre- precancerous =

post- postpartum =

ecto- ectopic =

endo- endocardium =

sub- sublingual =

epi- epidural =

para- parathyroid =

inter- intercostal =

intra- intravenous =

infra- infraorbital =

Negative Prefixes: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part
definitions from the glossary.

a-, an- apnea =

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 contra- contralateral =

in-; un- incision =

Other Prefixes: Define the prefix and the example medical term using the word part definitions
from the glossary.

anti- antibody =

de- dehydration =

dia- diarrhea =

ec-, ecto- ectopic =

eu- euphoria =

per- percutaneous =

pseudo- pseudocyesis =

supra- supra/thorac/ic =

syn- syndactyly =

sym- symmetry =

trans- transurethral =

Integumentary System
Chapter 16

Functions of the Skin:

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 1. Protects the body

2. Houses two types of glands

a. Sebaceous glands:

b. Sweat glands:

3. Has nerve fibers under skin that aid in sensations of pain, ______________________,
touch and ____________________________

4. Has blood vessels that aid in _____________________________ temperature

Anatomy of the Skin

Three Layers of Skin:
1. Epidermis – squamous epithelium cells

● Basal Layer – has basal cells which divide and multiply

● Stratum Corneum – cells here are called ___________________ cells

● It ___________________ blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and connective tissue

2. Corium (or) Dermis – fibrous tissue layer

● It contains blood and lymph vessels, hair follicles, glands, and nerve fibers

● For support, it has connective tissue cells and elastic _________________ fibers

3. Subcutaneous Layer – fat containing layer

● ___________________________ mostly present

● Act as a ________________ insulator and for ________________ storage

**Please label and review the Figure in the textbook

Accessory Organs of Skin

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 ● Hair – tight network of cells filled with ________________ and ________________;

melanin production determines hair ______________

● Nails – hard ______________________ plates located at the end of the fingers and

______________

● Glands – discussed on the previous page

Combining Forms: define the word part and the example term using word part definitions from
the glossary

Diaphor/o Diaphoresis

Hidr/o An/hidr/osis

Ichthy/o Ichthyosis

Myc/o Dermatomycosis

Onych/o Onychomycosis

Trich/o Trichomycosis

Xer/o Xeroderma

Ungu/o Sub/ungu/al

Adip/o Adipose

Albin/o Albinism

Kerat/o Keratosis

Xanth/o Xanth/oma

Melan/o Melanoma

Seb/o Seb/o/rrhea

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Abnormal Conditions

● Impetigo – bacterial inflammatory skin disease with ____________________, pustules,

and ______________________ over lesions. Treatment – antibiotics and proper

_____________________

● Scabies – parasitic infection accompanied by severe ________________. Treatment –

topical medication to destroy _______________.

● Tinea – fungal infection, named by location. Treated with antifungal medications.

Ex Tinea corpus = body

:
Tinea pedis = feet
Tinea barbae =
Tinea capitis =

● Wart - growth caused by virus, _____________________is the medical name for a wart

● Squamous cell carcinoma – Define:

Types of Skin lesions

Be able to identify the different types of lesions on a diagram. Refer to the textbook for
examples and pictures. It may be beneficial to focus on what makes each lesion different.

● Cyst –

● Fissure –

● Macule –

● Papule –

● Polyp –

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 ● Pustule –

● Ulcer –

● Decubitus ulcer –

● Vesicle –

● Wheal –

Skin Symptoms:

● Alopecia –absence of ______________ where hair normally grows

● Pruritus – _______________________ associated with many skin conditions

● Urticaria – another name for ____________________; caused by __________________

reaction

More abnormal conditions:

● Burn – Define the differences in each type of burn.

- First degree – affects the ______________ layer of skin; looks like:

- Second degree – affects the epidermis and dermal layer of skin; like:

- Third degree – affects all three layers of skin; looks like:

● Eczema – ___________________________ skin disease with red, papulovesicular

lesions

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 ● Gangrene – death of tissue from loss of blood supply to the area

● Acne – ________________________ and/or pustular lesions on the skin

● Psoriasis –

● Basal cell carcinoma – ____________________ tumor of basal cell layer of epidermis

● Cellulitis – acute infection of the skin; symptoms include heat, redness, pain and
swelling. Treated with antibiotics

***Review the singular to plural rules in Appendix 1 of the textbook***

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 Preparing for the First Distance Learning Exam
(In-class courses will take exams during the class hour)

1. The exam will be taken online through Blackboard using an approved proctoring service.
2. Students will have 60 minutes (1 hour) to complete the exam.
3. The majority of the exam will contain multiple choice, true/false, matching, or diagram
labeling questions.
4. There will be a section on each exam where you will need to separate the medical term into
its correct word parts by drawing a line between the word parts; and then define each word
part correctly. It would look similar to this example:
Gastrectomy = Gastr/ectomy
Gastr/o = stomach + -ectomy = surgical removal
5. You will need to know the literal definitions of each word part from the textbook (not your
own personal definition or explanation). These would have been contained within the
course notes for each particular unit of information.
6. As you can see, it will be very important for students to learn the word parts contained in
each chapter of material so that they can perform these activities at the end of the exam.
7. Spelling is important… students should focus on spelling terms correctly throughout the
course.
8. On some exams, students will also need to identify if the word part is a prefix, suffix, root
word or combining vowel. On other questions, students will need to write a definition of
the medical term using only the word part definitions. Students should read directions
carefully so they answer what is asked in each question.
9. According to the course syllabus, any exam may be taken ahead of time but they must be
taken by the close of business on the due date listed in the course schedule. If an exam is
not taken by the due date listed, the student should plan to take the Optional Exam #6 at
the end of the semester to make up for the missing unit exam score.

Students should email their faculty member if they have any additional questions. Best wishes
on your preparation for the first exam!

27
 Practice Activities

There are a variety of different methods to break down and define a medical term.

1. Break the following terms into word parts and identify the type of word part:
a. Rhinorrhea = rhin/o/rrhea = rhin/ = root word, /o/ = combining vowel, -rrhea = suffix

b. Gastroenterology =

c. Lateral =

d. Cardiothoracic =

2. Break the following terms into word parts and define each word part:

a. Rhinorrhea = rhin/o = nose + -rrhea = discharge or flow

b. Gastroenterology =

c. Lateral =

d. Cardiothoracic =

3. Break the following terms into word parts and write a definition of the term using the

literal definition of each word part:

a. Rhinorrhea = discharge from the nose

b. Gastroenterology =

c. Lateral =

d. Cardiothoracic =

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 Please look at the examples above and see how they are different. Follow
directions carefully and review the example given for this activity on the exam.

Practice Activities for the fill in the blank section at the end of
each exam
Directions: Use the example below to analyze the listed medical terms. There are two steps to
complete for each medical term. Use the glossary in your textbook to assist in breaking down
each term.
1. Draw line(s) to separate the medical term into word parts
2. On the line below each medical term, define each word part individually
3. Follow the example provided below
4. DO NOT write a paragraph definition from the textbook chapter; use only the definitions
of the individual word parts from the glossary

Example: arthr / itis

arthr/o = joint + -itis = inflammation
______________________________________________________

1. t o n s i l l e c t o m y

__________________________________________________________________

2. p e r i c a r d i u m

__________________________________________________________________

3. g a s t r o e n t e r o l o g y

__________________________________________________________________

4. s u b l i n g u a l

__________________________________________________________________

5. r h i n o r r h e a

__________________________________________________________________

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 Student Learning Outcomes (Review Sheet) for Unit #1 Exam
Upon completion of this unit, the student should be able to:

Chapter 1
● Recall all the meanings of combining forms, roots, prefixes, and suffixes in this chapter

● Define medical words in this chapter i.e., divide the words into their component parts, and
define the medical word correctly

Chapter 2
● Recall all the meanings of combining forms, roots, prefixes, and suffixes in this chapter

● Define and give examples of cells, tissues, organs, and systems

● Identify the body cavities*

● Identify the nine Abdominopelvic regions*

● Identify the four Quadrants*

● Identify the divisions of the back*

● Recall and use the positional and directional terms in examples

● Identify the body planes and their definitions*

Chapter 3
● Recall all of the meanings of combining forms, roots, suffixes, and prefixes in this chapter

● Define suffixes and medical words in this chapter

● Review the different kinds of blood cells and their function

● Use the rules in changing a word from singular to plural and plural to singular

Chapter 4
● Recall all the meanings of combining forms, roots, suffixes, and prefixes in this chapter

● Define medical words in this chapter

Chapter 16
● Recall all the meanings of combining forms, roots, suffixes, and prefixes in this chapter

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● Review the function of the integumentary system

● Identify the three layers of the skin and identify on a diagram*

● Identify the two types of glands associated with this system

● Recall the different kinds of lesions on the skin

● Review the pathologies, abnormal conditions, and abbreviations discussed in the notes for
this unit

*Must be spelled correctly for full credit

To achieve these outcomes students will want to:

● Complete the exercises at the end of each chapter
● Make flash cards for each combining form, prefix, and/or suffix in each chapter

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