Article

Exploring User Engagement and Purchase Intentions in T-Shirt

Retail Through Augmented Reality and Instagram Filters
Christopher Girsang and Chin-Hung Teng *

Department of Information Communication, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan 320315, Taiwan;

[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract
Augmented reality (AR) technologies—such as Instagram filters—bridge the digital and
physical worlds by allowing users to virtually try on clothing, thereby reducing the risk
of virus transmission. In the T-shirt retail industry, AR enables product personalization,
decreases the need for physical production, minimizes textile waste, and lowers carbon
emissions. It also benefits individuals with limited mobility or those who prefer shopping
online. This study tested several hypotheses on 105 active Instagram filter users using
filters from the ’Apprecio’ account on mobile devices. Data analyzed using the partial least
squares method revealed that interactivity significantly influences both purchase intention
and continued use of digital platforms. While hedonic and vivid features enhance the user
experience, they have a limited impact on driving purchases or long-term engagement.
Customers’ engagement and buying intent are more strongly shaped by practical and
interactive elements. The study recommends that companies invest in developing inter-
active AR features to boost customer satisfaction and foster trust. Future research should
involve larger participant samples and investigate specific interactive elements—such as
virtual try-on tools—to better understand their impact on consumer behavior. This study
highlights the critical role of interactivity in AR for delivering meaningful and engaging
shopping experiences.

Keywords: augmented reality; Instagram filters; purchase intention; mobile shopping

Academic Editor: Maura Mengoni

Received: 12 August 2025

Revised: 30 August 2025
Accepted: 8 September 2025 1. Introduction
Published: 18 September 2025
After the COVID-19 pandemic, many people became hesitant to try items in person,
Citation: Girsang, C.; Teng, C.-H.
such as clothes, pants, and other products. During this period, mobile shopping grew
Exploring User Engagement and
Purchase Intentions in T-Shirt Retail
rapidly due to the widespread use of smartphones for browsing and purchasing, making
Through Augmented Reality and shopping safer and more convenient, especially after health crises like pandemics [1]. This
Instagram Filters. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, shift highlights how technology is reshaping the way that consumers interact with brands
10161. https://doi.org/10.3390/ and products while reducing the need for physical contact. However, a new challenge has
app151810161
emerged: the content presented in online shopping apps—such as photos and videos—often
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. does not accurately reflect the actual products received [2]. This discrepancy leads to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. customer disappointment and hesitation toward future online purchases. To address this
This article is an open access article
issue, augmented reality (AR) has become a valuable innovation. It provides realistic,
distributed under the terms and
interactive product experiences that enhance the overall shopping journey, reduce the need
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
for physical interaction, and lower the risk of virus transmission during outbreaks. AR
(https://creativecommons.org/ try-on features, in particular, allow customers to fulfill their clothing needs without ever
licenses/by/4.0/). stepping into a physical store [3].

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810161

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 2 of 18

Augmented reality bridges the digital and physical worlds by overlaying virtual ele-
ments onto a person’s real environment [3]. Its use has rapidly expanded across healthcare,
fashion, and e-commerce industries. AR offers practical solutions like virtual try-ons, which
assist with assessing fit and style, reduce product returns, and help to prevent overproduc-
tion—thereby minimizing textile waste and lowering carbon emissions [4]. In addition to
making shopping more convenient, AR enhances customer confidence and fosters trust in
the buying process [5]. During pandemics, AR has proven especially valuable by providing
safe, contactless experiences along with additional product information, further driving its
adoption across sectors [3].
According to Forbes [6], companies lose billions in revenue because 91% of users
are reluctant to download dedicated business apps. Solutions like Meta Spark AR have
played an essential role in addressing this challenge by enabling users to interact directly
with augmented content without requiring additional installations. This convenience has
accelerated the growth of AR advertising on social media platforms like Instagram. Unlike
specialized AR applications that typically provide immersive, precise, and customized
shopping experiences [7], Instagram’s AR shopping tools stand out for their social-media-
centric approach. Features like filters and lenses are designed to promote playful interaction,
social sharing, and user-generated content that can quickly go viral. Integrated seamlessly
into the Instagram platform, these tools allow users to try products and amplify brand
visibility through influencers and peer-to-peer sharing, creating a socially driven and en-
gaging shopping experience. However, despite their popularity, Instagram’s AR features
remain limited in scope and depth compared to specialized AR tools, and there is still
little understanding of how they influence marketing strategies, particularly in the clothing
industry. Gaining deeper insights into how Instagram-based AR experiences shape con-
sumer behavior can provide valuable guidance for businesses seeking to strengthen their
marketing strategies [8].
The theory of interactive media effects (TIME), introduced by Sundar [9], explains how
the features of interactive media influence users’ psychological responses and behaviors.
In simple terms, TIME highlights that how media technologies are designed and presented
can directly shape how people perceive, interact, and respond to them [9]. This perspective
is particularly relevant to Instagram filters, one of the most widely used augmented reality
forms in everyday life. Unlike more specialized AR applications that emphasize product
accuracy, Instagram filters combine technological features with strong social sharing and
entertainment elements, making them a unique case for applying the TIME framework.
While TIME has often been used in studies of AR and other interactive media [10–12],
its application to Instagram filters in retail contexts is still very limited. Key aspects
emphasized in TIME, such as augmentation and interactivity, are clearly reflected in filters.
For example, filters that allow users to try on clothing virtually demonstrate augmentation,
while real-time customization illustrates interactivity. Thus, analyzing Instagram filters
through the lens of TIME helps to explain how their technical features affect consumer
perceptions and engagement and how they may influence purchase intentions in digital
retail contexts.
Based on the previous discussions, this research aims to carry out the following:
1. Analyze consumer perceptions of augmented reality elements—such as Instagram
filters on social media—using the TIME model framework.
2. Examine how Instagram’s augmented reality features enhance the shopping experience.
3. Investigate the impact of Instagram AR filters on purchasing decisions through the
lens of the TIME model.
This study makes a valuable contribution to existing research on technology adoption
by applying the TIME model specifically to augmented reality features on Instagram.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 3 of 18

Furthermore, it highlights the importance of characteristics such as perceived augmentation

and flow within the research framework. Including these elements is crucial for evaluating
the effectiveness of Instagram AR filters and enhancing the overall applicability of the
model. This study provides significant insights into consumer satisfaction and confidence
in adopting technology, particularly in the context of AR features on social media platforms.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Integration of AR in Social Commerce
Social commerce, as one of the rapidly growing subsets of e-commerce, integrates the
dynamics of social networking with online trading platforms, creating a more interactive
and engaging shopping experience [13,14]. Social commerce can be described as a shopping
ecosystem within social media that leverages online social capital, enabling consumers
to stay actively engaged before, during, and after transactions when platforms provide
interactive and supportive features [15]. The unique characteristics of social commerce span
social, commercial, technological, behavioral, and sharing dimensions [16], with its main
distinction from traditional e-commerce lying in the deeper level of social engagement.
Unlike standard e-commerce, where reviews are typically directed at anonymous buyers,
social commerce grows through user-to-user interactions, such as sharing product infor-
mation, experiences, and recommendations within their networks [14,17,18]. The presence
of forums, communities, ratings, and user-generated content strengthens the relationship
between sellers and buyers, building a trust foundation that influences decision-making
and repeat purchasing behaviors [19].
Instagram has emerged as one of the leading platforms in social commerce by combin-
ing its visual-centric design with advanced interactive features. Since its launch in 2010,
Instagram has evolved from merely a content-sharing platform into a powerful retail and
marketing tool, with augmented reality filters as one of its most significant innovations.
These AR filters, powered by Meta Spark Studio, allow users to add digital effects to
their faces, bodies, or environments, directly creating immersive and interactive experi-
ences through their smartphones. Beyond entertainment [20], education [21], and cultural
heritage preservation [22], AR filters are increasingly being utilized in retail to capture
consumer preferences, enable virtual product trials, and create more personalized shopping
experiences [23].
The integration of AR in digital retail has been widely recognized for its positive
impact on consumers’ decision-making processes. Previous studies have shown that AR
not only enhances enjoyment but also increases the perceived usefulness of the shopping ex-
perience [24,25] by strengthening spatial presence, vividness, and value perception [26–28].
These immersive qualities form positive attitudes and stronger behavioral responses by
balancing the perceived benefits and costs [29,30]. Within the Instagram ecosystem, these
AR-driven experiences present innovative opportunities for fashion retailers (such as T-
shirt promotions) to attract consumers by combining interactive visualization and social
interaction, influencing attitudes, trust, and purchase decisions.
Shuhaiber [31] further reinforces this perspective by identifying trust, ease of use,
and personalization as key factors driving consumer engagement and purchasing behavior
in Instagram-based shopping contexts. These factors become even more significant when
applied to the use of AR filters for fashion products such as T-shirts: AR filters enhance
vividness and interactivity, allowing consumers to virtually try on products and visualize
fit and style before making purchase decisions. AR filters deepen user engagement and
boost consumer confidence in their purchase choices. However, the study also highlights
existing challenges, such as unclear product information or fake reviews, which can reduce
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 4 of 18

trust and emphasize the importance of transparent communication and reliable social proof
when integrating AR technologies into fashion marketing strategies.
Building on this perspective, Leong [32] introduces the social commerce framework,
which holistically integrates the social, technological, commercial, and behavioral dimen-
sions within the social commerce ecosystem. This framework offers a comprehensive lens
for analyzing the role of Instagram filters in retail, particularly in the fashion segment.
From the social dimension, AR filters encourage user-generated content and peer-to-peer
interactions, reinforcing trust and social proof. The technological dimension highlights
the role of advanced AR technology in enhancing vividness and personalization, creating
smoother and more intuitive shopping experiences. The commercial dimension emphasizes
how filters function as strategic tools to support promotions, increase traffic, and accelerate
purchase conversions. Finally, the behavioral dimension captures how interactive AR
experiences influence user engagement and purchase intentions.
Overall, these studies provide a coherent understanding of how AR technology re-
shapes the digital shopping journey when integrated into Instagram as a social commerce
platform. The combination of immersive visualization, social interaction, and advanced
personalization drives consumers.

2.2. The Theory of Interactive Media Effects (TIME)

TIME explains how media affordances shape user perceptions, attitudes, and behav-
iors [9]. Affordances are system features that enable interaction. TIME proceeds through
predictors, mediating variables, and outcomes. Key affordances include modality (format
of information), agency (user control), interactivity (manipulation of media), and navigabil-
ity (ease of exploration). In AR, perceived augmentation or digital overlay onto physical
environments emerges as a distinct fifth affordance beyond traditional categories [33].
Mediating variables explain how media features are translated into real experiences for
users. Heuristics, such as realism, control, and quick responsiveness, help users to process
information more easily. Perceptual bandwidth, which includes ease of use, intuitiveness,
and vivid presentation, makes interactions feel comfortable and natural. In addition, reci-
procity or dialogue with the system (contingency) enhances engagement, while intrinsic
motivation (self-determination), such as competence, autonomy, and social connection,
strengthens long-term experiences. All these aspects ultimately shape positive perceptions
of the source, interface, and content, encouraging users to gain knowledge, develop better
attitudes, and foster sustainable behaviors such as continued system use or recommending
it to others [34].
In social commerce, Instagram filters enhance decision-making by fostering control,
immersion, and enjoyment. Unlike static product images, filters support continuous inter-
active visualization, making them effective for virtual try-on and product engagement [20].
This study focuses on how users customize and manipulate product appearances through
filters. By directly interacting with augmented elements, users gain a sense of control,
deeper immersion, and greater decision-making confidence, which are key factors in creat-
ing meaningful, user-centered shopping experiences.

3. Conceptual Framework
The TIME model will be employed to examine the factors influencing user engagement
and purchasing decisions related to augmented reality on social media, with a focus on Insta-
gram filters. The core components that we discussed in this study include predictors such as
perceived augmentation (AUG) and interactivity (INT); mediators such as the hedonic com-
ponent (HE), utilitarian component (UT), and vividness (VI); and outcome variables such as
purchase intention (PI) and repeat usage (RU). These components serve as key indicators of
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 5 of 18

user interaction with AR features on platforms like Instagram. Table 1 provides a detailed
overview of these variables along with their respective measurement questionnaires.

Table 1. Model construct and the corresponding measuring questionnaire.

Construct Item Measures

A. Affordance/Predictor
AUG1 After using the Instagram filters, I could still imagine the T-shirt.
Perceived Augmentation
(AUG) AUG2 The shirt in the Instagram filters seemed to exist in real time.
Javornik (2016) [10]
AUG3 The level of reality seemed high on the Instagram filters.
INT1 I was in control over the content of the Instagram filters that I wanted to see.
INT2 When I interacted with the Instagram filters, the information shown was relevant.
Interactivity (INT) INT3 When I interacted with the Instagram filters, the information shown met my expectations.
Lee (2020) [11] INT4 When I interacted with the Instagram filters, the information shown was suitable.
INT5 When I interacted with the Instagram filters, the information shown was useful.
INT6 This filter gave me valuable information.
B. Mediating Variables
VI1 The visual display through the Instagram filters was clear.
Vividness (VI)
VI2 The visual display through the Instagram filters was detailed.
Yim (2017) [33]
VI3 The visual display through the Instagram filters was sharp.
UT1 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be helpful.
UT2 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be functional.
Utilitarian Component (UT) UT3 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be necessary.
Lee (2020) [11]
UT4 The information that the filter showed me was what I expected it to be.
UT5 The information shown to me when I used the filter was accurate.
HE1 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be fun.
Hedonic Component (HE)
HE2 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be exciting.
Lee (2020) [11]
HE3 Using the Instagram filters for apparel shopping would be enjoyable.
C. Outcomes
RU1 I am willing to actively participate in the activities on the Instagram filter.
Repeat Usage (RU)
Li and Fang RU2 I will frequently use the Instagram filters in the future.
(2019) [35] RU3 I strongly recommend that others use the Instagram filter.
PI1 More likely to purchase this product.
Purchase Intention (PI) PI2 More likely to recommend this product.
Li and Peng
(2021) [36] PI3 More likely to try this product.
PI4 More willing to purchase the item.

3.1. The Effects of Perceived Augmentation

According to Javornik [10], perceived augmentation evaluates the effectiveness of user
interaction in virtual environments that aim to mirror reality realistically and seamlessly.
In the context of augmented reality try-ons, this concept is reflected in the digital embed-
ding of 3D objects into the physical environment, which enhances users’ comprehension
of the product and its attributes. Previous studies, such as those by Lee et al. [11], have
demonstrated that perceived augmentation significantly influences both hedonic and utili-
tarian components of user experience in augmented reality garment try-ons. The hedonic
component refers to the enjoyment, entertainment, and emotional gratification that users
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 6 of 18

derive during virtual try-on interactions, such as excitement or engagement when exploring
the technology. In contrast, the utilitarian component emphasizes functional and practical
value, including ease of evaluating size, fit, and time efficiency during decision-making [37].
These findings suggest that perceived augmentation enhances users’ experiential satisfac-
tion and supports more rational and informed purchase decisions. Therefore, drawing
from these insights, it is hypothesized that higher levels of perceived augmentation will
positively influence users’ experiential and behavioral outcomes in AR-based interactions.
We intend to evaluate the same concept with Instagram filters, and our hypotheses for
this issue are as follows:

H1. The perceived augmentation in Instagram filters influences the utilitarian component.

H2. The perceived augmentation in Instagram filters influences the hedonic component.

Flow is a well-established concept in psychology, referring to a state of deep focus

and immersion in an activity, typically triggered by a challenging task, as explained by
Javornik [10]. In marketing research, flow has been widely applied to examine consumer
engagement in digital environments, revealing its significant influence on user interaction
and behavioral outcomes. In the context of Instagram AR filters, particularly T-shirt try-
ons developed with Spark AR, flow is manifested when users experience a seamless and
immersive interaction, such as virtually testing different designs in real time and sharing
their experiences socially on the platform.
Vividness, on the other hand, refers to a technology’s capacity to create a rich sensory
environment that encompasses both breadth (variety) and depth (intensity) of sensory
stimulation [27,38]. It emphasizes the clarity, detail, and engagement that a medium
provides. While vividness in earlier digital media was primarily achieved through static
high-resolution images or basic 3D modeling, the evolution of AR technologies like Spark
AR has elevated this experience. These filters now allow for real-time manipulation of
garment styles, colors, and sizes, combined with spatially accurate overlays and dynamic
visual effects. This advancement creates a more immersive experience that helps users to
better visualize products in their real-world context.
Prior studies have demonstrated that higher levels of vividness enhance immersion
and flow in interactive digital environments [10]. In the case of Instagram T-shirt try-
on filters, vividness enables users to perceive the product more realistically, increasing
enjoyment, emotional engagement, and practical utility, such as evaluating fit or style
before purchase. Moreover, the degree of perceived augmentation—the extent to which
digital elements are seamlessly integrated with the physical environment—can significantly
shape perceptions of vividness. When augmentation is perceived as realistic and seamless,
users are more likely to experience a heightened sense of clarity, richness, and interactivity
in the AR environment.
Based on the discussion, our hypothesis is as follows:

H3. The perceived augmentation in Instagram filters influences vividness.

3.2. The Effects of Interactivity

Interactivity encompasses two core components: the technology itself and users’ per-
ceptions of that technology. Technological features such as rapid responsiveness, precise
controls, and content customization enable user engagement [39]. However, user motiva-
tion plays a critical role in how interactivity is perceived. Even with advanced technology,
low motivation can lead to minimal interaction. Therefore, fostering user motivation is
essential for promoting deeper and more effective engagement [40].
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 7 of 18

In augmented reality, interactivity is associated with both hedonic and utilitarian

values. AR creates engaging and immersive experiences by modifying visual and sensory
elements through various media and virtual content [33,41]. These enjoyable experiences
boost user engagement and satisfaction, demonstrating how interactive features enhance
the appeal of AR technology. At the same time, AR delivers practical benefits such as
improving product visibility and supporting more informed decision-making [40,42].
The vividness of augmented reality can generate immersive sensory experiences
through high-quality graphics, aiding users in visualizing product usage and enhancing
their confidence in purchase decisions. The combination of vividness and interactivity
enhances the whole experience, particularly with the addition of sound. Vividness enhances
user comprehension of products and delivers an immersive experience that increases
engagement and promotes higher purchase intentions [33].
Based on this information, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H4. The interactivity in Instagram filters influences the utilitarian component.

H5. The interactivity in Instagram filters influences the hedonic component.

H6. The interactivity in Instagram filters influences vividness.

3.3. Mediators to Purchase Intention and Repeat Usage

Hedonic value arises from augmented reality’s enjoyable and engaging experiences,
fostering emotional involvement that makes interactions more satisfying and memo-
rable [33]. This emotional engagement has been shown to enhance both purchase intention
and repeat usage, as users who find the experience enjoyable are more likely to purchase
and engage with the technology repeatedly over time. Thus, it is reasonable to expect the
hedonic experience to positively influence users’ purchase intention and repeat usage [33].
Similarly, the utilitarian value of AR applications, which reflects their functional
benefits, such as improving decision accuracy, convenience, and efficiency, is also expected
to shape behavioral outcomes [33]. When users find the AR experience practically helpful
in evaluating products, they are more likely to translate this perceived utility into purchase
intention and repeat usage, as supported by prior research on technology acceptance and
continued use [43,44].
In addition, vividness—the degree to which AR delivers a rich and immersive sensory
experience—enhances users’ ability to visualize products in context. Vividness builds con-
fidence in product evaluation and deepens trust and engagement with the technology [33].
Consequently, higher levels of vividness are expected to increase purchase intention and
encourage repeat usage by fostering a stronger connection between the user and the in-
teractive AR environment. However, insufficient evidence clearly demonstrates how AR
directly influences these variables. Consequently, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H7. The utilitarian component influences repeat usage.

H8. The utilitarian component influences purchase intention.

H9. The hedonic component influences repeat usage.

H10. The hedonic component influences purchase intention.

H11. The vividness influences repeat usage.

H12. The vividness influences purchase intention.

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 8 of 18

3.4. Relationship Between Purchase Intention and Repeat Usage

Considering that AR applications are designed to encourage continuous engagement
and repeated interactions, it is critical to understand how such repeated usage shapes
user experiences and ultimately drives purchase decisions [45]. Drawing on the stimu-
lus–organism–response (S-O-R) model [46], repeated interactions with AR environments
serve as stimuli that enhance user familiarity, comfort, and perceived value over time. This,
in turn, strengthens cognitive and affective responses, which are likely to translate into
stronger behavioral intentions, such as the intention to purchase [45].
Existing research has predominantly focused on technology adoption or first-time
usage [33], often overlooking how continued interaction with AR technologies influences
deeper stages of the consumer decision process. In the context of AR-driven product
try-ons, habitual engagement allows users to refine their preferences, reduce uncertainty,
and build trust in the accuracy and reliability of the technology, thereby making purchase
intentions more robust.
Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H13. Repeat usage influences purchase intention.

We summarize all the constructs, their relationships, and the associated hypotheses in
Figure 1.

Figure 1. The hypotheses and constructs used in this study.

4. Methodology
4.1. Sample and Data Collection
According to the “10-times rule,” a commonly used guideline in partial least squares
structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), the minimum recommended sample size should
be at least 10 times the maximum number of indicators associated with any latent vari-
able [47]. This study also suggests that a minimum of 50 participants is sufficient to ensure
reliable results. Our experiment included 105 people who participated voluntarily. Thus,
the sample size of this study meets and exceeds both recommended thresholds, ensur-
ing adequacy and robustness for PLS-SEM analysis. After agreeing to participate in the
study, all participants were granted access to the designed Apprecio’s Instagram filters.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 9 of 18

Subsequently, the research team distributed the questionnaire online via Google Forms to
collect data related to their user experience. Data for this study were collected between
October and December 2023. Table 2 presents the age distribution of participants: 42.8%
were between 18 and 25 years old, 40% were between 26 and 35, and 7.6% were between 36
and 45. Regarding gender, 43% of the participants were female, while 57% were male.
Participants were recruited using convenience sampling: a non-probability method
where subjects are selected based on accessibility, availability, or willingness to partic-
ipate [48,49]. This approach is affordable and practical but may introduce bias and
limit the generalizability of results, as the sample may not fully represent the target
population [50,51]. Researchers should also acknowledge any potential over- or under-
representation when using this sampling method.

Table 2. Information of the respondents.

Measures Item Count Percentage (%)

18–25 45 42.8
Age 26–35 42 40.0
36–45 8 7.6
Male 60 57.0
Gender
Female 45 43.0

4.2. Questionnaire
Participants first participated in an experiment and then completed an online question-
naire. Figure 2 shows the procedures for operating our Instagram AR filter for T-shirt try-on.
In the experiment, participants followed a sequence of interactions: (a) they began by trying
the Instagram T-shirt filter on their mobile phones and testing all the available features
within the filter; (b) they proceeded to scan a flat plane; (c) the T-shirt was then displayed
on the screen, where participants could press the button to rotate it; (d) the pinch gesture
was used to zoom in and zoom out, enabling closer inspection of garment details. The filter
provided four color variations—(e) white, (f) pink, (g) black, and (h) beige—allowing
participants to explore different style options. (i) Finally, participants could take photos,
record videos, and save these outputs directly from the filter, completing the (j) AR T-shirt
try-on demonstration.
The study utilized a survey created with Google Forms to examine the relevant
variables. Based on previous research, the questionnaire included 27 items, as shown in
Table 1. The survey was divided into two sections. The first section included two simple
questions to gather demographic information: gender and age. The second section focused
on seven variables and used a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
5 (strongly agree), to measure each variable in the model.

4.3. Structural Equation Modeling

The study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) and smart partial least
squares (SmartPLS) to analyze the relationships among variables, as depicted in Figure 1.
SEM is a powerful statistical tool widely used for evaluating complex relationships among
multiple variables while effectively accounting for measurement errors. It assesses causal
relationships between external (exogenous) and internal (endogenous) variables through
standardized coefficients and significance levels. As illustrated in Figure 1, the model
includes seven variables: two external variables (perceived augmentation and interactivity),
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 10 of 18

three mediating variables (hedonic component, utilitarian component, and vividness),

and two outcome variables (purchase intention and repeat usage).

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

Figure 2. Procedures for using our Instagram AR filter for T-shirt try-on. Please refer to the text for
the detailed explanation of the procedures (a–j).

5. Result, Discussion, and Implication

5.1. Result
Table 3 presents the reliability and validity assessment of the constructs used in this
research. The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values exceed the recommended
threshold of 0.7, and the average variance extracted (AVE) is also above the acceptable level
of 0.5. These results indicate that the model meets the required standards, demonstrating
strong internal consistency and reliability, as well as satisfactory convergent validity.

Table 3. Reliability and validity.

Cronbach’s Composite Average Variance

Constructs
Alpha Reliability Extracted (AVE)
Perceived Augmentation 0.79 0.87 0.70
Interactivity 0.94 0.95 0.79
Vividness 0.87 0.92 0.79
Hedonic Component 0.92 0.95 0.87
Repeat Usage 0.92 0.95 0.86
Utilitarian Component 0.91 0.93 0.74
Purchase Intention 0.92 0.94 0.81
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 11 of 18

The model fit results presented in Table 4 indicate that the model used in this study is
acceptable, even demonstrating relatively good performance. The SRMR (standardized
root mean square residual) value of 0.069 falls below the recommended threshold of
0.08 [52], indicating that the model has a good fit between the theoretical structure and the
observed data. This value suggests that the residual differences or discrepancies between
the theoretical model and the actual data are relatively small and insignificant, meaning
that the structural model can represent the relationships among the examined variables.
In addition, the GoF (goodness of fit) index of 0.709 further strengthens the evidence that
the model has good overall quality. This value is well above the commonly accepted
minimum of 0.36 [53], which is generally used as an indicator of a model with adequate
quality. The closer the value is to 1, the better the model fits the analyzed data. With such a
high value, we can conclude that the model not only fits the existing data but also explains
the variability among variables with a strong level of reliability, supporting the validity of
the findings in this study.
Furthermore, the chi-square/df ratio, which falls below the recommended threshold
of 5 [54], suggests that the model effectively balances complexity and data fit. This ratio
reflects that the model is not overly complex or overfitted, allowing the analytical results
to be generalized more confidently. The average R2 value of 0.615 and AVE of 0.817
shown in Table 5 also reflect good explanatory power and convergent validity across
constructs. These indicators collectively support the robustness and validity of the proposed
structural model.

Table 4. Model fit indices.

Result Value Criterion

SRMR 0.069 <0.08 [52]
GoF index 0.709 >0.36 [53]
Chi square/df 2.72 <5 [54]

Table 5. Measurement properties: R2 and AVE of latent variables.

Latent Variable R2 AVE

Hedonic Component 0.643 0.870
Purchase Intention 0.585 0.814
Repeat Usage 0.543 0.862
Utilitarian Component 0.779 0.741
Vividness 0.525 0.798
Average 0.615 0.817

Table 6 presents the test results of all our hypotheses. As shown in the table, our
study supports most of the hypotheses, except that the hedonic component and vividness
do not significantly affect repeat usage and purchase intention. Figure 3 presents the
analysis results of all our hypotheses, including the path coefficients, statistical significance
levels, and the scores for each questionnaire item. This figure shows that the interactivity
variable has the most potent effect on the utilitarian variable, with a coefficient of 0.722
(p ≤ 0.001). This indicates that higher interactivity (such as real-time customization of
T-shirt colors, sizes, and styles within the Instagram AR filter) significantly enhances the
perceived practical value of the technology. Users are more likely to recognize its usefulness
in making informed choices, such as evaluating fit or style, when the interactive elements
are seamless and responsive.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 12 of 18

Following this, the utilitarian variable significantly influences repeat usage, with a
coefficient of 0.626 (p ≤ 0.001). This suggests that when users perceive clear practical
benefits, they are more motivated to repeatedly engage with the AR filter, reinforcing the
role of the utilitarian component as a key driver for sustained interaction.
The most significant impact on purchase intention comes from repeat usage, with a
coefficient of 0.470 (p ≤ 0.001), followed by the utilitarian variable, with a coefficient of 0.381
(p ≤ 0.001). This highlights that repeated interactions increase familiarity and trust and
build confidence in the product, making users more likely to commit to a purchase. Simi-
larly, the utilitarian value supports this intention by demonstrating the filter’s functional
benefits, such as realistic visualization, which aids decision-making.
In contrast, while conceptually important, the hedonic and vividness variables func-
tion more as mediating factors and do not show significant direct effects on purchase
intention and repeat usage. This suggests that enjoyment and sensory richness alone are
insufficient to drive behavioral outcomes unless they are complemented by practical and
utilitarian benefits. In other words, users may find the AR experience fun and visually
appealing. Still, their decision to reuse the feature or purchase is primarily influenced by
its functional value and how effectively it integrates into their decision-making process.

Figure 3. Final SEM model for determining factors understanding user engagement and purchase
intention through Instagram filter.

Table 6. Test results of the proposed hypotheses.

No Path Description Supported?

1 AUG → UT Perceived augmentation positively influences utilitarian component. Yes
2 AUG → HE Perceived augmentation positively influences hedonic component. Yes
3 AUG → VI Perceived augmentation positively influences vividness. Yes
4 INT → UT Interactivity positively influences utilitarian component Yes
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 13 of 18

Table 6. Cont.

No Path Description Supported?

5 INT → HE Interactivity positively influences hedonic component. Yes
6 INT → VI Interactivity positively influences vividness. Yes
7 UT → RU Utilitarian component positively influences repeat usage. Yes
8 UT → PI Utilitarian component positively influences purchase intention. Yes
9 HE → RU Hedonic component positively influences repeat usage. No
10 HE → PI Hedonic component positively influences purchase intention. No
11 VI → RU Vividness positively influences repeat usage. No
12 VI → PI Vividness positively influences purchase intention. No
13 RU → PI Repeat usage positively influences purchase intention. Yes
AUG: perceived augmentation, INT: interactivity, HE: hedonic component, UT: utilitarian component, VI: vivid-
ness, PI: purchase intention, RU: repeat usage.

5.2. Discussion
Interactivity is a critical factor shaping consumer decision-making, especially within
the context of social media shopping. It acts as a primary motivator, encouraging individ-
uals to make purchases and continue using a platform over time. A more engaging and
interactive shopping environment improves the overall user experience and enhances the
perceived value of the platform. When users find a functional and enjoyable platform,
they are more likely to develop a sense of loyalty, leading to sustained engagement and
increased sales. Therefore, businesses should acknowledge interactivity as a critical factor
in shaping consumer behavior and supporting long-term success.
To maximize the benefits of interactivity, organizations should focus on expanding and
refining the interactive features of their platforms. Enhancing UI/UX design can lead to
smoother navigation and greater user satisfaction, encouraging more frequent engagement.
In addition, adopting innovative marketing approaches (such as interactive Instagram
filters) can create a more immersive and personalized shopping experience. These filters
enable consumers to visualize products in a more engaging way, strengthening their
connection with the brand. By implementing such interactive strategies, businesses can
improve user retention and increase the overall attractiveness of their platforms.
On the other hand, not all digital engagement factors significantly influence purchase
intentions or repeat usage. Similarly, hedonic features (entertainment) and vividness (clar-
ity) do not significantly drive these outcomes, which is contrary to the findings of [33],
which argue that hedonic and vividness, referring to the extent to which AR delivers enjoy-
ment or fun and a rich sensory experience, can enhance users’ ability to visualize products
in a more realistic context. This capability increases confidence in evaluating products and
deepens users’ trust and engagement with the technology. However, the absence of support
for the effects of the hedonic component and vividness on repeat usage and purchase inten-
tion in this study may be explained by an emerging consumer trend in which functional
value is prioritized over visual appeal. Moreover, based on the habituation–tedium the-
ory [55], the novelty effect of immersive AR experiences quickly diminishes after repeated
exposure, making vividness less effective in capturing attention or encouraging repeated
interactions without continuous innovation or refreshed content.
As a result, organizations may need to reconsider prioritizing these aspects and instead
focus on more effective strategies to encourage purchases and repeat usage. However,
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 14 of 18

exploring how augmented reality features in Instagram filters can improve consumer
understanding of T-shirt products could still offer some value. Ultimately, focusing more on
strategies that have been shown to enhance interactivity and user engagement will likely be
more effective in promoting business growth and improving the overall shopping experience.

5.3. Implication
5.3.1. Theoretical Implication
This study contributes to understanding how augmented reality in Instagram filters
can help businesses to increase purchase intention for products like T-shirts. As mentioned
earlier, there is still limited research exploring the key factors influencing purchase intention
when using AR technology on social media platforms. Understanding these factors is
crucial for gaining deeper insights into consumer behavior within this context.
The findings extend the TIME model by demonstrating how the model functions
within the unique environment of social-media-based shopping. The strong effects of
interactivity and utilitarian value on repeat usage and purchase intention highlight the
importance of practical and functional engagement when consumers interact with AR
filters. These results indicate that the TIME framework, which emphasizes technological
affordances such as augmentation and interactivity, should be adapted to accommodate
goal-oriented behaviors common in social commerce, where consumers prioritize functional
benefits alongside entertainment.
Additionally, the results show that the direct effects of the hedonic component and
vividness on user behavior are relatively limited. In the context of social media shopping,
AR technology’s functional benefits play a more critical role than enjoyment or visually rich
experiences. This finding refines the TIME model by emphasizing that, while immersive
and enjoyable experiences can enhance user engagement, they are not sufficient to drive
purchasing behavior without clear and practical value.
Finally, this study highlights the importance of integrating habitual usage into the
TIME framework, as repeat usage strongly predicts purchase intention. This suggests
that future applications of the TIME model in AR commerce should consider the long-
term behavioral effects of repeated interactions, helping to bridge the gap between initial
engagement and sustained consumer loyalty in social media shopping environments.

5.3.2. Practical Implication

This study contributes to existing research by demonstrating that interactivity, par-
ticularly through the utilitarian value, is a key driver in shaping purchase intention and
repeat usage on digital platforms, especially when consumers engage with Instagram filters
for T-shirt shopping experiences. The findings reinforce that interactive features such as
the ability to virtually “try on” T-shirts, adjust colors, or explore different designs in real
time significantly enhance users’ sense of engagement and confidence in their purchase
decisions. For instance, when users interact with Instagram filters that allow them to switch
between various T-shirt styles, fit options, or colors, they gain a more accurate impression
of the product and form a stronger emotional connection to the brand. This interactive
engagement creates a playful and immersive experience beyond static images, making
shopping more dynamic and enjoyable.
Moreover, the study emphasizes that while vividness and hedonic elements, such as
high-quality visuals or aesthetic effects, can make the filter experience more appealing, they
do not necessarily drive purchase intention or repeat use. Instead, the ability to explore
and interact with T-shirt designs in a personalized way serves as the primary motivator for
consumers to proceed with purchases or revisit the platform. From a practical perspective,
brands should prioritize interactive features. These include real-time customization that
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 15 of 18

lets users switch between different T-shirt colors, patterns, and sizes; fit and style previews
supported by body-tracking technology; interactive calls-to-action with direct links to
product pages or “add to cart” buttons; and social sharing functions that allow users to post
customized looks directly to Instagram Stories, thereby encouraging organic promotion.
By emphasizing interactivity over purely aesthetic effects, brands can deliver a more
engaging, confidence-building shopping experience that leads to higher conversion rates
and stronger customer loyalty.

6. Limitations and Future Research

This study has limitations, which should be considered when interpreting the findings.
First, the small sample size (n = 105) may limit the statistical power of the analysis and the
ability to generalize the results to a broader population. Second, the participants in this
study were limited to young and active AR filter users, which could introduce sampling
bias and reduce the applicability of the findings to consumers who are less familiar with or
engaged in AR-based shopping experiences. Third, there is the possibility of a novelty effect
associated with AR features, where participants’ positive responses might be influenced
by the excitement of experiencing innovative technology rather than by stable behavioral
patterns. Fourth, this study focused solely on a single product category (T-shirts), which
may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should address these lim-
itations by employing larger and more diverse samples, exploring nonactive AR users,
and incorporating longitudinal designs to better account for the diminishing novelty of
AR experiences over time. Another promising direction is cross-cultural validation to
gain deeper insights into how cultural contexts shape the impact of AR interactivity on
consumer behavior. Furthermore, exploring AR filters across different product categories,
such as shoes, bags, or accessories, could provide broader insights into the versatility of
AR technology in influencing purchase decisions. Investigating specific types of interac-
tivity, such as product customization, gesture-based interactions, or interactive tutorials,
would also help to identify the most effective features for promoting sustained consumer
engagement and purchase intention across industries.
In addition, this study is limited by the absence of demographic subgroup analyses,
such as examining potential differences based on gender, age, or other relevant demo-
graphic variables. Without these analyses, whether the observed relationships between
AR features, user engagement, and purchase intention hold consistently across diverse
user segments remains unclear. To mitigate this limitation, future studies should aim for
larger and more balanced samples that enable comparative subgroup analyses. For ex-
ample, researchers could investigate whether younger users respond more positively to
AR interactivity or whether gender influences preferences for vividness, personalization,
or trust-related factors. Incorporating these subgroup insights would offer a more nuanced
understanding of how demographic characteristics shape AR shopping behaviors and
enhance the overall generalizability of the findings.

7. Conclusions
This study offers valuable insights into how augmented reality features, such as In-
stagram filters, influence consumer behavior in the T-shirt industry. The findings reveal
that perceived interactivity is pivotal in promoting repeat usage and purchase intention.
Increased interactivity drives deeper engagement with the media, enhancing user involve-
ment and ultimately raising the likelihood of purchase. These results underscore the impor-
tance of brands prioritizing the development of highly interactive AR experiences, enabling
consumers to engage with products actively and fostering stronger brand connections.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10161 16 of 18

However, the research also indicates that, while enhancing the overall user experience,
vividness and hedonic factors do not significantly influence purchase intention and repeat
usage within this context. This point challenges previous assumptions regarding the role of
these elements in driving consumer behavior. It suggests that brands should emphasize
utilitarian features and functional interactivity to achieve more effective AR marketing
outcomes on social media platforms.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.G.; methodology, C.G.; validation, C.G. and C.-H.T.;
formal analysis, C.G.; investigation, C.G. and C.-H.T.; writing—original draft preparation, C.G.;
writing—review and editing, C.-H.T.; supervision, C.-H.T. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan,
under Grant Nos. NSTC 112-2221-E-155-024 and NSTC 114-2221-E-155-017.

Institutional Review Board Statement: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki. Ethical review and approval were exempt because this study involved non-identifiable,
non-interactive, and non-interventional research conducted in public settings, where no specific
individuals could be identified from the collected information. This exemption is in accordance with
the Scope of Human Research Exempt from IRB Review as stated in the Taiwan Ministry of Health
and Welfare directive No. 1010265075.

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in this study are included in the
article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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