DOGS

The dog is probably the first animal to be domesticated by humans. The domestic
dog originated about 12,000- 14,000 years ago in Europe and Asia and was
domesticated about 10,000 years ago. Humans found that they could depend on the
dog to warn of danger, and the dog depended on humans for food and shelter. The
modern dog evolved as a result of selective breeding of specific purposes and as a
result of the environment which they lived.
The “father” of modern dogs is considered to be the Tomarctus. Tomarctus had a
body built for speed and endurance as well as for leaping and differed little in
appearance from the modern dog. This was a hunter, an animal geared for the
chase, that brought down prey with slashing teeth. The modern dog still retains
much of tomartcus features. Today there are seven major groups, and more than
four hundred breeds that have been developed in the past 100 to 250 years.
Descending in a direct line from Tomarctus are four major lines of dogs;
 Herd dogs
 The hounds and terriers
 The northern and toy dogs
 The guard dogs.
It is from these four lines and groups that the modern dogs are descended.
DOG GROUPS AND BREEDS
The sporting group
This group was developed to assist the hunter in the pursuit of game.
There are 24 breeds recognized in this group. Some include:
 The pointer
 German shorthaired pointer
 Labrador retriever
 The English setter
 The irish setter
 The Brittany
 English springer spaniel
The pointer
The pointer is a breed that gets its name from the stance taken in the preference of
game. The pointer was developed about 200 years ago in England from pointing
breeds imported from spain and Portugal.
This is a powerful and agile animal with speed and endurance developed from
hunting. Its short hair makes it neat and clean, and it requires less attention than
some of the other hunting breeds. The pointer possesses an even temperament and
is very affectionate, intelligent, and patient with children and is a congenial
companion.

The Labrador retriever

This breed is native to Newfoundland. It is short-coupled, strongly built and very
active. It is an active water dog bred to assist the hunter in retrieving downed
waterfowl, and it readily plunge into the water in almost any weather. Its short,
thick air is water resistant. The Labrador is noted for its excellent sense of smell
and as being alert, friendly and good-natured. Is excellent capabilities, fine
temperament and dependability have established it as one of the prime breeds for
service as a guide dog for the blind or for search and rescue work.

The irish setter

This is a solid red breed. This breed is used for almost all kinds of game. They are
noted for their speed and toughness in all types of terrain. Other qualities include
being independent and bold. The breed can also be gentle, lovable and loyal. They
may learn a little slower, but once trained, they will retain their abilities for a long
time. The beauty, gaiety, courage and personality of this breed have made it an
ideal show dog. When it is bred for show, its field ability has been sacrificed.

The Hound group

This group of dogs is of two basic types; one hunts by scent and the other by sight.
The Greyhounds, afghans, borzoi, saluki and whippet breeds are among the
approximately 26 breeds of sight hounds. Other breeds include the bloodhound,
dachshund and American foxhound.

The Afghan hound

This is a very old breed, and little is known about its origin and history. It is
believed that it existed thousands of years ago in Egypt. Originally the breed was
used for hunting. They would hunt in packs, pursuing game by sight and followed
the huntsman on horseback. As a hunting hound, they were noted for their speed
and ability to travel rough terrain swiftly and sure-footedly. Today, the breed is
popular as a show dog and companion. Because of their long silky hair coat,
afghans require regular care and grooming. They are sensitive, intelligent,
somewhat aloof and dignified. Afghans respond to kindness and attention.
The Black and tan coonhound
This breed was specifically developed for hunting raccoons, but it can be used for
hunting deer, bear, mountain lion and fox. The breed is a passionate hunter and
will work a scent with consummate skill and determination. The breed is
intelligent, alert, friendly, eager and aggressive. it responds well to the owner.

The Terrier Group

This group is divided into two subgroups; the long-legged, larger breeds such as
fox terriers, and the short-legged, small breeds such as the Dandie Dinmont.
They include the airendale terrier, bedlington terrier, border terrier, bull terrier and
dandie dinmont terrier.

The Airedale terrier

It was developed in the country York in England. The breed was originally used
for hunting.it is very docile, obedient and lively, and it gets along well with
children. It needs to feel loved and respected. During wartime, the dog was used to
carry messages and was used as police dog and bodyguard.

The working dog group

This group of dogs has been developed to labour or work for humans. They may
serve as guard dogs, sled dogs, police dogs, rescue dogs and messenger dogs.
The breeds include; Alaskan malamute, boxer, the Doberman pinscher, great dane,
great Pyrenees, standar schnauzer, the rotteweiller, saint Bernard and komondor.
The boxer
The boxer is one of the many descendants of the old fighting dogs of the high
valleys of Tibet. This breed was developed for two purposes; to fight bulls and
hunt bears. The breed is considered good-natured, loyal, playful, tolerant and
somewhat suspicious of strangers. It is a short-lived dog and often does not reach
10 years of age. It must be exercised regularly. The boxer is a watchdog,
bodyguard and guide dog for the blind and used in police work.
The Doberman Pinscher
This breed originated in Germany. Because of its intelligence and excellent nose, it
has been used as a police dog, guard dog, war dog and hunting dog. The males and
females have different temperaments. The females are calm, responsive and
affectionate with the family, but warry of strangers. The males are extremely
intelligent, but impetuous, often aggressive and must be trained by a dominant
owner who is a good disciplinarian. The life expectancy of this breed is 8-12 years.

The Rottweiler
Developed in Germany. The breed was used as a herding dog to drive cattle to and
from the markets. This massive, powerful animal is considered peaceful, obedient,
courageous and intelligent. They are known to be very protective of their owners.
Today, the breed is used as a herd dog, police dog, watch dog and bodyguard. They
also make excellent companion dogs.
The Herding Dog Group
This group was developed to aid the livestock herder with various species of
livestock. They include; the collie, German shephered, English sheepdog and the
welsh corgi.
The Collie
These come in two varieties; the long-haired collie and the smooth coated collie.
The collie is kind, sensitive, intelligent and loyal. It is very protective of its owner
and family, but because of its sensitive nature, careful, gentle training is required.
The collie is wary of strangers and may also be lazy and stubborn sometimes. The
breed is very versatile, being used as rescue dogs, as a guide dog for the blind, and
in police work. It requires frequent brushing of the coat.
The German Shepherd
As the name implies, this breed originated from Germany. They weigh about 35 to
40kg and are 55 to 65cm in height. Three varieties of the breed are recognized i.e.
the longhaired, the double and the plush coat. The coat is usually black and tan but
can have other color combinations. Regular brushing and occasional bathing is
recommended for grooming.
They are very strong animals loved by the police for various duties. Best trained
from an early age, they are intelligent and obedient animals that easily learn. They
are faithful to their masters and easily mingle with children and other pets, cautious
with strangers, and always ready to protect their masters.
They don’t bark at people aimlessly and only does so under aggression.
But they can become timid and fearful if not firmly trained and socialized,
resorting to fear biting. Training should therefore be confident, firm and consistent
or else they become rude once they sense that their handlers are weak.

The companion/toy Dog group

Certain dogs are called toy dogs because of their size; some weigh 0.5 kgs. These
dogs are very alert and popular as house pets and companions.
The breeds include Chihuahua, Italian greyhound, Manchester terrier,the spitz
breeds and Pekingese.
The Japanese sptitz
Dog breeders in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s created the Japanese Spitz
by crossbreeding a number of other Spitz breeds to develop the Japanese Spitz.This
is a small dog, around 33 cm (13 ins) at the withers, with a somewhat square body,
deep chest, and a very thick, pure white double coat.It has a pointed muzzle and
small, triangular shape prick ears (ears that stand up.) The tail is long, heavily
covered with long fur, and is carried curled over and lying on the dog's back.They
are a healthy breed with very few genetic problems.Life expectancy is estimated at
10–16 years.This makes it one of the longest-lived dog breeds.The Japanese Spitz
is a companion dog and thrives on human contact and attention, preferring to be a
member of the family. They are known as very loyal dogs. They enjoy being active
and love to be in the outdoors. They are intelligent, playful, alert, and obedient, and
particularly excellent and loving toward children.

The American spitz/American Eskimo dog

This is a breed of companion dog, originating in Germany.European immigrants
brought their Spitz pets with them to the United States, especially New York, in
the early 1900s.
The American Eskimo is an affectionate, loving dog. Hardy and playful, they are
excellent with children. Charming and alert. Because of the dog's high intelligence
and its willingness to please, it is easy to train and often ranks among the top
scorers in obedience trials.
American Eskimos like to work. They are naturally wary of strangers, but once
introduced they become instant friends. Eskimos need to be part of the family with
a firm, consistent, confident pack leader.
If you allow the dog to believe he is the ruler of your home, many varying degrees
of behavior issues will arise, Including but not limited to, separation anxiety,
obsessive barking, dog aggressiveness, willfulness and guarding. Without
enough mental and physical exercise, they can become hyperactive and high
strung, spinning in circles.
The Chihuahua
This is recognized as the smallest breed in the world. The name comes from the
state of Chihuahua in Mexico. There are two varieties, the short-haired variety and
a wavy-haired variety. The Chihuahua is a companion dog and is noted for being
courageous, energetic, lively, alert, proud, affectionate, loyal and intelligent. It is
clannish, recognizing and preferring its own kind, and as a rule not liking dogs of
other breeds.

Nonsporting Dogs
These basically are used as companion dogs. The breeds include the Boston
Terrier, bulldog, Dalmatian, lhasa apso and the poodle.
The Bulldog
 It originated in England and was used for the sport of bull baiting. The original
bulldogs were vicious and courageous.in 1835, dog fighting and bull baiting
became illegal in England. The bulldog no longer had a use, but fanciers of the
breed wanted to preserve it.
Over the next generations, the ferocity was bred out of the dog and other desirable
characteristics were retained. The bulldog today is good-natured, reserved,
dignified, loyal, clean and aristocratic. Over history it has been used as a war dog,
police dog and guard dog. Problems may occur at the process of giving birth
because of the large size of the puppy’s head. A veterinarian should be kept
advised and cesarean delivery may be necessary.

FEEDING AND NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT OF DOGS

The dog is a member of the scientific order Carnivora, a large group of mammalian
animals that share a similar tooth structure. The dietary needs of animals belonging to
this order vary.
 Some members of this group have an absolute requirement for meat in their diet
(called obligate or true carnivores), while others can meet their nutrient
requirements through eating plant material (herbivores) or a combination of meat
and plants (omnivores).
 Because of the dietary needs of dogs, both their tooth structure and intestinal tract
have become adapted to an omnivorous diet. This means that, under normal
circumstances, dogs can meet their nutritional needs by eating a combination of
plant and animal foods.
 The six basic nutrients are water, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, and
vitamins. These essential nutrients are required as part of the dog’s regular diet and
are involved in all of the basic functions of the body.
 The source of the proteins and fats is less important than the quality and
digestibility of these essential components of the dog’s diet. Dogs can thrive if they
are fed a properly balanced vegetarian diet. However, an all-meat diet would be
unbalanced and would not meet all of a dog’s nutritional requirements.
 A well-balanced diet must also include an appropriate amount of minerals,
vitamins, certain essential amino acids (from proteins), and specific essential fatty
acids (from fats). These components are needed to build and maintain tissue and
carry out biological reactions, and the necessary amounts vary somewhat with the
dog’s stage of life (puppy, adolescent, adult, pregnancy, senior).
 Feeding your dog an appropriate amount of a well-balanced diet is vital to its
overall health and well-being.
 To meet their energy needs, dogs have evolved to use proteins and fats as their
primary energy sources, but they can also use carbohydrates for energy. The fact
that the dog’s digestive system produces enzymes that are specific for digesting
starches and sugars shows that they are capable of digesting carbohydrates.
However, complex carbohydrates such as grains are more digestible when they are
cooked.
 For most pet dogs, feeding once or twice per day is recommended. Many dogs will
benefit from eating equally divided meals two to three times per day. Regardless of
the feeding schedule you choose, avoid allowing your dog to exercise vigorously
after consuming a large meal, especially if your dog eats its food rapidly. This will
help minimize problems with bloat, intestinal obstruction, or other serious
digestive disorders.
 Be sure your dog has access to fresh, clean water at all times

Life-stage feeding for puppies

Early in life, puppies must eat often and lots! They need relatively larger quantities
of food because they are growing rapidly and have limited space in their tiny
stomachs. At 6 to 8 weeks of age, they need to be fed about four to six meals a day.
By 6 months, the need for food is decreased because puppies are about 75% of
their adult size and can be fed two to three meals a day. A good-quality puppy food
has advantages over adult dog food because it has been specially formulated for a
puppy’s demanding nutritional requirements and contains the appropriate amount
of calcium. Because of their rapid growth, any nutritional “mistakes” made during
puppyhood will have more severe, even irreversible and lifelong, consequences.
Because growth is almost complete by 8 to 10 months of age, the average puppy
can be switched to “adult” dog food at about 12 months of age.
Life-stage feeding for the older dog
Older dogs, especially those over 7 years of age, will benefit from a diet
formulated for their needs. Senior dog diets often have lower calories, higher
protein, lower sodium, and fewer carbohydrates. Many also contain ingredients
such as prebiotics to maintain healthy intestinal microbial populations, increased
omega-3 fatty acids and other antioxidants to combat inflammation, and
glucosamine to promote joint health.

REPRODUCTION IN DOGS
Reproductive cycles

Terminologies

Estrus cycle: reproduction cycle of females

Oocyte; developing egg

Follicle; fluid filled blister-like structure located on the ovary, each contains an

oocyte and encasing cells

Ovulation; periodic rupture of mature ovarian follicle resulting in release of one

oocyte from each follicle.

The follicles are also very important structures in hormone production.

Estrous cycle of the bitch

The estrous cycle is a true cycle that progresses through the four stages and then

repeats

Divided into 4;
Proestrous
Estrus
Diestrus
Anoestrous
The estrous cycle in dogs varies tremendously depending on breed as well as size

of the animal.

The estrous cycle may begin as early as six months old in some smaller breeds and

as late as 18 months in some of the larger breeds.

The duration of the estrous cycle in one particular dog is fairly consistent over

time; but again, there's a great deal of variability among individuals and among

breeds. To cycle once every seven months is a very rough average among dogs.

Some breeds will have a tendency to cycle once every four months (for example,

the German Shepherd) while others, such as the Basenji will tend to cycle once

every 12 months.

Proestrus
Proestrus is the stage of getting ready. This is the time when a bitch's reproductive

tract is preparing for the possibility of breeding with a male dog.

Proestrus is what is happening when we observe a bloody discharge from the dog's

vulva. This is the result of the loss of red blood cells by leaking of the blood

vessels in the uterus as it prepares for mating.

During proestrus a bitch may become attractive to males and she may play and

interact with them, but she will not allow mounting or mating to occur.

Estrus

Estrus is the period of sexual receptivity. Note that the stage of estrus is a noun and

is spelled differently than the adjective describing the estrous cycle.

Proestrus was getting us ready for the possibility of mating, and estrus is when the

bitch is receptive to the male so that mating can occur.

Estrus is also the period in which ovulation occurs.

Estrus technically begins on the first day that the female will stand for mounting

and ends when the female no longer accepts the male for mounting.

The period following estrus is called diestrus,

Diestrus

There are two outcomes for diestrus in the dog.

If mating occurred and fertilization was successful, the dog will be pregnant and

will enter gestation as her diestrus.

If fertilization was not successful or if mating did not occur, the dog will enter a

pseudopregnant state. The reproductive system undergoes very similar hormonal

changes whether or not the dog got pregnant. This is a unique aspect of dog

reproduction.

The reason this happens is that following estrus the reproductive tract becomes

under the control of progesterone. This is the hormone that is required to maintain

pregnancy.

After an ovarian follicle ruptures and ovulates, it becomes a transient structure

called a corpus luteum, which is Latin for yellow body. The plural is corpora lutea.

The corpus luteum produces progesterone. After ovulation, there are several

corpora lutea present and they will produce progesterone, again whether or not the

dog actually got pregnant.

Again, this is not typical. Dogs are unique. They're different because the corpora

lutea will function and will secrete progesterone whether or not the dog is

pregnant, therefore leading to the two different outcomes for diestrus—pregnant or

not. If not pregnant, the dog spends her diestrus in what is known as a

pseudopregnant state.

The effects of pseudopregnancy vary considerably among bitches - some show no

outward signs at all, but others may show physical signs such as increased appetite,

weight gain, a distended abdomen, or enlarged mammary glands…even lactation

in extreme cases.Some dogs may also exhibit behavioral effects such as being

moody or withdrawn. One common behavioral effect is to display maternal or

nesting behaviors, where a dog will nest and treat toys and other animals as if they

were her puppies.

Again, there is much variation as to whether a dog displays the effects of

pseudopregnancy.

Anestrus

This is the final stage and represents another unique aspect of reproduction in dogs

in that the bitch has estrous cycles with long period of ovarian inactivity between

cycles.

Again, the length of anestrus varies greatly among dogs with factors such as breed,

age, overall health, and environment all playing roles.

Polytocous

How many oocytes are ovulated? Here again we see tremendous variation, with

smaller breeds releasing fewer oocytes and therefore having smaller litter sizes

than larger breeds. Example ranges are shown here.

The fact that dogs ovulate multiple oocytes and bear multiple offspring, or litters,

classifies them as polytocous.

Another unique aspect of dog reproduction is that unlike many species, the oocytes

of a dog are not yet ready to be fertilized when they are ovulated. They will need

2-3 days to mature before fertilization can occur.

Gestation in dogs

Gestation in dogs lasts approximately 63-65 days.

The size of the litter can affect the length of gestation, with larger litters having

shorter gestations by about one to three days compared to smaller litters.

Approaching parturition

The first sign that a bitch is pregnant is observed around five weeks, in the form of

enlargement of the abdomen and mammary glands.

The bitch will gradually gain weight over the course of gestation. Her mammary

glands will further enlarge during the last few days in preparation for feeding the

newborn pups.

Within 24 hours of whelping, or giving birth, the bitch's body temperature will start

to drop slightly. Temperatures will drop from a regular temperature of

approximately 101.5 degrees Fahrenheit to 100 degrees or lower. This is one

indicator that is easily observed and so is frequently used by caretakers to estimate

impending parturition.

The bitch will become increasingly restless as parturition approaches.

Parturition

Parturition then begins with a series of uterine contractions that lead to expulsion

of the first fetus. The placenta for each fetus will often pass shortly thereafter. The
mother licks away the membranes to clean and stimulate the puppy, and she may

also eat the placenta.

The process will continue until all of the puppies have been born. At that time the

contractions will cease, and the mother will continue to clean and nurse her young.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT OF DOGS

 Many Diseases Can Be Prevented Some of the most common and serious

dog diseases have been made less common through vaccines; however, these

diseases continue to threaten a dog that lacks proper immunization.

 Puppies may be vaccinated as early as 4-6 weeks, depending on each

situation and the veterinarian’s advice.

 Through mother’s milk, puppies receive disease-fighting antibodies, which

last 6-16 weeks. Vaccinations then take over.

 Yearly boosters should be given throughout your dog’s life, including old

age when your dog may become more susceptible to some diseases.

 The following diseases can be prevented through vaccinations.

 Distemper. Canine distemper is caused by a highly contagious, airborne

virus. It affects the dog’s respiratory, gastrointestinal, and nervous systems.

Early symptoms are those of a “cold” — runny eyes and nose, fever, cough,

and often diarrhea. Later in the course of disease there may be nervous

twitching, paralysis, and seizures (convulsions). There is no successful

treatment.
 Hepatitis (Adenovirus). Canine infectious hepatitis is a viral disease

transmitted by urine, feces, or saliva of infected animals. It affects the liver,

kidney, and blood vessels. The signs are fever, tissue swelling, and

hemorrhage. Treatment may require blood transfusions and intensive care;

often it is not successful.

 Leptospirosis. Canine leptospirosis is caused by bacteria spread through

contact with nasal secretions, urine, or saliva of infected animals. The

disease also can infect humans. Lepto infects the kidneys and causes fever,

vomiting, diarrhea, and jaundice. Treatment requires antibiotics, intensive

care, and intravenous (IV) fluid therapy. Dogs that recover may be left with

permanent kidney damage.

 Kennel Cough. Canine infectious tracheobronchitis is caused by several

viruses (including parainfluenza) and bacteria (including bordetella). This

highly contagious disease attacks the respiratory system, causing a chronic,

dry, hacking cough. It is generally a mild infection, but it may progress to

severe pneumonia in young pups or old dogs. Treatment can be helpful.

 Parvo. Canine parvovirus is a deadly contagious viral disease that is spread

by contact with infected fecal material. The virus is difficult to kill and is

easily spread. It attacks the gastrointestinal system, causing fever, lethargy,

 vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and rapid dehydration. Treatment requires

intensive IV fluid and supportive therapy and has a variable rate of success.

 Corona. Canine coronavirus is a highly contagious viral infection attacking

the gastrointestinal tract. Signs are similar to parvovirus infection, except it

is generally milder and more effectively treated.

 Rabies. Rabies is a viral infection of all mammals, including man. It is

transmitted by the bite of an infected animal. The virus infects the central

nervous system, causing a brain infection (encephalitis), which is always

fatal. There is no treatment for dog or man after symptoms appear. However,

a vaccines effective in preventing the disease in people if it is administered

soon after their possible exposure.

 Because of the serious public health threat, the law requires a rabies

vaccination for all dogs.

Dog vaccination schedule

Vaccine 1 2 3 4 Revaccin

ation

DHLPP(distemper, 6 8 12 16 Annually

hepatitis, leptospirosis, weeks weeks weeks weeks

Parainfluenza and

parvovirus)

Giardia 14 17 - - Annually

weeks weeks

Bordetella 14 17 - - Annually

weeks weeks

Lyme 14 17 - - Annually

weeks weeks

Rabies 16 - - -- Annually

weeks

Internal Parasites

The most common internal intestinal parasites are tapeworms and roundworms.

Tapeworms.
Tapeworms are long, segmented worms. They are transmitted when a dog ingests a

larval stage of the worm found in a flea or the raw meat of small mammals.

 A dog that hunts on its own or has had fleas will likely develop tapeworms.

 Individual tapeworm segments are easily seen in freshly passed feces or

around the anus of an infected dog.

 Special dewormers are required for treatment.

Roundworms.

The roundworm classification encompasses many worm types, including ascarids,

hookworms, whipworms, and heartworms.

 The intestinal worms are transmitted by the ingestion of feces or feces-

contaminated soil that contains worm eggs.

 The transmission of the heartworm, however, requires an intermediate host

such as a mosquito for propagation.

 Specialized microscopic examination of feces (for intestinal worms) or

blood (for heartworms) will aid to determine the presence of roundworms.

 Treatment or prevention with medication is effective, but it should be

repeated regularly and monitored to determine if reinfection has occurred.

 Deworming of dogs should be done under supervision.

 The following describes in more detail the four types of roundworms

mentioned above.
Ascarids

These are long, thin spaghetti-like worms that inhabit the intestine. Some

types of these worms can be seen in an infected dog’s feces. These worms

commonly create a problem in pups, where they cause stunted growth,

lethargy, diarrhea, vomiting, and a pot-bellied appearance. In severe cases,

ascarids can cause seizures (convulsions).

Hookworms

These are tiny worms that attach themselves to the intestinal wall and suck

blood from the dog. They can be transmitted in utero and via the mother’s

milk to newborn pups. Consequently, pups may have hookworms at a very

early age. Signs of infection include lethargy, stunted growth, anemia, and

dark, tarry feces. Hookworms are a life-threatening parasite at any age.

Blood transfusions may be necessary in advanced cases.

Whipworms

These are tiny worms that inhabit and develop in the lower bowel. They

often cause chronic watery diarrhea and weight loss. Their life cycle is

longer than most intestinal parasites, and proper timing of repeated

deworming is important for their control.

Heartworm
 These are devastating internal parasites that live in a dog’s heart and in the

big vessels near the heart, where they cause severe damage to the circulatory

system and lungs. They are transmitted by the bite of a mosquito that has

bitten an infected dog. Treatment is difficult, but preventive measures are

available. Dogs should have a blood test for heartworms in early spring

before mosquito season begins. If the test is positive, treatment may be

attempted. If the test is negative, preventive medication can be given to your

dog daily or on a monthly basis throughout the mosquito season

External Parasites

 External parasites are “bugs” (insects) that live on the outside of a dog’s

body.

 They include fleas, ticks, lice, flies, mosquitoes, mites, and others.

 They not only cause irritation, but also may transmit diseases and cause

disease in humans. Careful skin examination can detect these parasites.

Fleas
 Fleas are readily seen in a dog’s haircoat. They are pencil-lead size, brown,

compressed side to side and seem to be in constant motion. They are seen

most easily at the base of the tail, between the ears, or in the short hair on the

abdomen. Even if the flea is not visible, black specks of excrement may be

seen. Many treatments are available; however, the dog’s environment must

be treated just as vigorously, since the flea actually spends more time off the

dog than on. Flea control should be implemented at the earliest sign of flea

infestation because fleas multiply rapidly and a small problem becomes a

major one in just a few days.

 While most dogs scratch with fleas, some dogs are also allergic to flea

saliva. For them, one flea bite can set off an allergic reaction of severe skin

inflammation. A flea-allergic dog will require medication to relieve the skin

inflammation in addition to flea control.

Ticks

 They are most prevalent in early spring and are most commonly found on

outdoor dogs that get into underbrush and wooded areas.

 Ticks can transmit several diseases and should be removed with care. Grasp

the tick near its head with a pair of tweezers and pull away from the skin

with a firm tug.

 Ticks should be controlled by daily inspection and removal or, in heavy

infestations, by the regular use of chemical dips.

 Lice are small, light-colored parasites that are transmitted dog to dog. They

can be seen at the base of the hair.

 Signs of lice infestation (pediculosis) are a rough and dry hair coat, matted

hair, and scratching and biting of the skin. Lice are effectively treated with a

variety of chemicals available

Mange mites

There are two types of mange in dogs.

Sarcoptic mange is caused by the sarcoptic mite, a microscopic parasite

similar to a gigger.

 These mites are transmitted from dog to dog and can also infect human skin.

They burrow into the skin and cause severe itching and consequent skin

irritation and inflammation.

 Hair loss can be severe and generalized over the body.

 Diagnosis by is essential, and treatment is usually quite effective.

 All animals in contact with the infected dog should be treated at the same

time.

Demodectic mange is caused by demodectic mites that destroy the hair

follicle in which they reside.

 This causes small patches of hair loss that can spread to the entire body. The

initial skin lesions may become infected and are difficult to treat.

 The tendency to develop demodectic mange is thought to be hereditary. It is

seen most frequently in purebred dogs. Demodectic mange is not contagious.

Diagnosis and treatment by a veterinarian are necessary; treatment is

difficult.

Ear mites

Mites tunnel in the skin of the outer ear canal. They are easily transmitted

from dog to dog or cat to dog.

They can be seen in the ear with magnification. Ear mites are suspected

when dark

Coffee-ground debris is present in the ears.

 Infestation signs are head shaking and scratching at the ears

 Left untreated, ear mites predispose the ear to secondary bacterial infection.

Treatment requires cleaning of the ear by a veterinarian and use of mite-

killing insecticide.

 Be sure to treat any other cats or dogs in the household.

Other Common Problems

 Ear infections are a common problem in dogs, especially those breeds with a

heavy earflap.
 Infections are caused by bacteria or yeast that grow in the ear when the ear’s

normal environment is changed for any reason.

 Ear mites, ticks, and water or grass awns in the ear can be predisposing

factors. (Grass awns are slender, bristlelike appendages on the tips of many

grasses. Dogs can get them in their ears as they run through fields.)

 Signs of ear infections are head shaking, pawing or digging at the ear, pain,

redness, and inflammation of the ear canal, and a foul smell in the ear. Any

ear infection should be examined by a veterinarian for proper treatment. To

prevent ear problems:

• Examine your dogs ears at least once weekly.

• Try to prevent water from getting in your dog’s ears when bathing the dog.

• Ask for advice on wax control and routine ear cleaning.

 Dental problems arise frequently and need attention. Drooling and/or foul

odors coming from the mouth are signals. Regular veterinary advice and

maintenance programs are necessary to prevent this disorder.

 Dog anal sac problems also occur, causing considerable animal discomfort.

Anal glands may become infected, causing drainage and foul odors at times.

 The dog may exhibit uneasy behavior such as rear-end scooting or nipping at

the tail area.

  A simple procedure may relieve the animal; in severe cases, antibiotic

treatment or surgical intervention is necessary.

Nutritional diseases of dogs

As nutritional occur under practical conditions, nutritional diseases are more likely

to be the result of several dietary deficiencies than of any single one. It is well to

know the characteristics of single vitamin and mineral deficiencies, however, as a

guide to the proper feeding of dogs and cats and an aid to the diagnosis of

nutritional diseases.

Rickets

Any disturbance in the mineral metabolism that results in defective or abnormal

calcification, or hardening, of growing bones is usually termed rickets.

The clinical indications of rickets include;

i. lethargy and listlessness

ii. arched neck

iii. crouched stance

iv. knobby and deformed joints

v. bowed legs

vi. flabby muscles

The changes characteristic of defective calcification in the young animal are most

marked in the zones of growth of the long bones of the legs—at the junction of the
end (epiphysis) and shaft—and at the cartilaginous junction of the ribs. At such

points there is a cessation of calcification with an excessive production of cartilage

and a deposition of fat. In the more advanced stages the entire bone becomes soft

and easily deformed or broken. The development of the teeth is also retarded.

Rickets may result from a deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, or vitamin D and that

it may be prevented and cured, if it is not too advanced, by the inclusion in the diet

of adequate amounts of calcium and phosphorus and enough vitamin D.

TETANY OF PARTURITÍON, OR ECLAMPSIA

Eclampsia occurs sometimes in female dogs and cats shortly before, during, or

after the delivery of young. It is apparently the result of a calcium deficiency,

possibly associated with a vitamin D deficiency. Ii is most common in females

nursing large litters, in which case the demands of the mother for calcium for milk

production are heavy. The symptoms vary in severity from nervousness and mild

convulsions to severe attacks which may terminate in coma and death. It has been

found that the seizures can be controlled by the administration of calcium, and

recurrence is prevented by addition of readily utilized calcium and vitamin D to the

diet.

NUTRITIONAL ANEMIA

Anemia is a deficiency in hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in the blood.

The physiological effects of anemia result from the diminished power of the blood
to absorb oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and include an increase in pulse and

respiration rates, rapid onset of fatigue with exercise, and general weakness. Even

a mild degree of anemia is recognizable by the pale color of the visible mucous

membranes and by blood examination. Anemia may result from such causes as

hemorrhage, internal parasites, chronic infectious diseases, and poisoning, or from

a faulty diet. Nutritional anemia occur as a result of diets inadequate in the quantity

of the constituents that function in the production of hemoglobin. They are most

commonly associated with a deficiency of iron or copper or of the B vitamins, or

with long-continued underfeeding of proteins essential for the formation of red

blood cells.

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY

Vitamin A deficiency in dogs is usually based on symptoms that appear in the

advanced stages of the disease, when some animals may fail to recover even when

the deficiency is corrected. Probably the most easily recognized symptom is a

characteristic disease of the eye called xerophthalmia (eye fails to produce tears).

Many other conditions less specific and often not so easily recognized as of dietary

origin are associated with a deficiency of vitamin A. These include loss of weight,

rough coat and scaling skin, incoordination of movements, probably lowered

resistance to infections, and, in growing puppies, a stunting of growth.