Mechanics of Materials
Unit1: Axial Loading
Dr. S. Solomon Raj
Associate Professor, MED
[email protected] Mechanics of materials is the study of the
internal effects caused by external loads
acting on real bodies that deform (meaning
objects that can stretch, bend, or twist).
Mechanics of
material/Stren
gth of
materials Statics and dynamics are devoted
primarily to the study of external
forces and motions associated with
particles and rigid bodies (i.e.,
idealized objects in which any
change of size or shape due to
Engineering forces can be neglected).
Mechanics
Statics Dynamics
• Regardless of the application, a safe and successful design must address the
following three mechanical concerns:
• Is the object strong enough to withstand the loads that
strength will be applied to it? Will it break or fracture? Will it
continue to perform properly under repeated loadings?
• Will the object deflect or deform so much that it
Stiffness cannot perform its intended function?
• Will the object suddenly bend or buckle out of shape at
Stability some elevated load so that it can no longer continue to
perform its function?
The concepts of strength of materials are critical in many applications, including
this one where workers assure that this concrete element is ready to be lifted
into place where it will serve as a critical piece of a multistory structure.
Exploration
• Think for a moment about your own life and the number of times
that you rely on items to be strong enough to meet your needs. If
you are sitting in a chair right now, that chair must have been
designed and built to support your weight.
• Think about the roof over you and the floor under and the way that
they had to be designed to be safe and not deflect too much.
• If you rode a bike or drove a car to your current location, think of
the various components of those machines such as frames, axles,
cranks, and chains that were needed to safely and effectively
transport you to your current location.
• will study the ways in which components such as these can be
designed to be safe, to limit deflection to an acceptable amount,
and to meet their intended needs over the life of the product.
Let’s Break Something
CONCEPT OF STRESS
• We use “direct loading” here to develop the concept
of stress and, later, the concept of strain. By the term
“direct stress” we refer to cases where the total
applied force is shared equally by all parts of the
cross section of the load-carrying member. The types
of loading considered in this chapter are
• ■■ Direct axial loads
• ■■ Direct shearing forces
• ■■ Bearing loads
• Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area
of the material from which a member is made to an
externally applied load.
Stress Units
In order to have uniform tension or compression in a prismatic bar, the
axial force must act through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
shows two circular rods carrying a casting weighing 11.2 kN. If each rod is 12.0
mm in diameter and the two rods share the load equally, compute the stress in
the rods.
Objective Compute the stress in the support rods.
Given Casting weighs 11.2 kN. Each rod carries half
the load. Rod diameter = D = 12.0 mm
Analysis Direct tensile stress is produced in each
rod.
Stress element
CONCEPT OF STRAIN
shows an axial tensile force of 45 kN applied to an aluminum bar that has a diameter
of 20 mm. Before the load was applied, the length of the bar was 250.00 mm.
After the load is applied, the length is 250.58 mm. Thus, the total deformation is 0.58
mm.
Strain, also called “unit deformation,” is
found by dividing the total deformation by
the original length of the bar. The lowercase
Greek letter epsilon (ε) is used to denote
strain:
DIRECT SHEAR STRESS
• Shear refers to a cutting-like action. When you use common household scissors,
often called “shears,” you cause one blade of the pair to slide over the other to
cut (shear) paper, cloth, or other material.
The examples described in this section along
with their accompanying figures illustrate
several cases where direct shear is produced.
That is, the applied shearing force is resisted
uniformly by the area of the part in shear,
producing a uniform level of shearing force
across the entire area being sheared, called As
in this book. The symbol used for shear stress is
τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. Then, the
direct shear stress can be computed
as
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
The ASTM standard tension specimen has a
diameter of 12.8 mm and a gage length of
50.8 mm between the gage marks, which
are the points where the extensometer
arms are attached to the specimen
In a static test, the load is applied slowly
and the precise rate of loading is not of
interest because it does not affect the
behavior of the specimen.
When the initial area of the specimen is used
in the calculation, the stress is called the
nominal stress (other names are conventional
stress and engineering stress). A more exact
value of the axial stress, called the true stress,
can be calculated by using the actual area of
the bar at the cross section where failure
occurs.
A is called the proportional limit
For low-carbon steels, this limit is
in the range 210 to 350 MPa, but
high-strength steels (with higher
carbon content plus other alloys)
can have proportional limits of
more than 550 MPa.
The slope of the straight line
from O to A is called the modulus
of elasticity (E)
This phenomenon is known as yielding of the During strain hardening, the
material, and point B is called the yield point. material undergoes changes in its
The corresponding stress is known as the yield crystalline structure, resulting in
stress of the steel. increased resistance of the material
to further deformation.
Necking in a ductile metal specimen
Cup-and-cone failure surfaces
The percent reduction in area measures
The ductility of a material in tension
the amount of necking that occurs and is
can be characterized by its
defined as
elongation and by the reduction in
area at the cross section where
fracture occurs. The percent
elongation is defined as
Typical stress–strain curve for steel
A summary of the definitions
The proportional limit is the value of stress on the stress–
strain curve at which the curve first deviates from a straight
line.
The elastic limit is the value of stress on the stress–strain curve
at which the material has deformed plastically; that is, it will
no longer return to its original size and shape after removing
the load.
The yield point is the value of stress on the stress–strain curve
at which there is a significant increase in strain with little or no
increase in stress.
The yield point is the value of stress on the stress–strain curve
at which there is a significant increase in strain with little or no
increase in stress.
Typical stress–strain curve for aluminum.
Modulus of Elasticity (E)
• The modulus of elasticity, E, is a measure of the stiffness of a material determined
by the slope of the straight-line portion of the stress–strain curve. It is the ratio of
the change of stress to the corresponding change in strain
When the level of stress in a
material under load is below the
proportional limit and there is a
straight-line relationship between
stress and strain, it is said that
Hooke’s law applies.
Poisson’s Ratio(Siméon D. Poisson)
Experiments have shown that the relationship
between lateral and longitudinal strains caused
by an axial force remains constant, provided
that the material remains elastic and is
homogeneous and isotropic
This is valid only for a
uniaxial state of stress (i.e.,
simple tension or
compression).
Values vary for different materials, but for most metals,
Poisson’s ratio has a value between 1/4 and 1/3. Because the
volume of material must remain constant, the largest
possible value for Poisson’s ratio is 0.5. Values approaching
this upper limit are found only for materials such as rubber.
Shearing Strain.
The ratio of the shearing stress to the
shearing strain is called the modulus of
elasticity in shear or the modulus of rigidity,
and is denoted by G.
Axially Loaded Bars
Stresses on inclined planes
Deformations of Members Under
Axial Loading
ELASTIC DEFORMATION IN TENSION AND
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
■■ The member must be straight and have a constant cross section.
■■ The material must be homogeneous.
■■ The load must be directly axial.
■■ The stress must be below the proportional limit of the material. Recall that the
value of the proportional limit is close to the yield strength, sy.
Principle of superposition
• The principle of superposition is often used to determine the stress or
displacement at a point in a member when the member is subjected to a
complicated loading. By subdividing the loading into components, this principle
states that the resultant stress or displacement at the point can be determined by
algebraically summing the stress or displacement caused by each load component
applied separately to the member.
• The following two conditions must be satisfied if the principle of superposition is
to be applied.
2. The loading
1. The loading P
must not
must be linearly
significantly
related to the
change the
stress or
original
displacement
geometry or
that is to be
configuration of
determined
the member
Superposition
Principle of superposition
• A circular steel bar of various cross-sections is subjected to a pull of 800 kN as
shown in Fig. Determine the extension of the bar. E = 204 GPa.
• A bar made up of two square sections, one of steel and the other of aluminium is
shown in Fig. The bar is acted upon by a compressive force P. Determine the value
of P if the total decrease in length of the bar is 0.3 mm. Take Es = 205 GPa and Es =
75 GPa.
• Axial loads are applied to the compound rod that is composed of an aluminum
segment rigidly connected between steel and bronze segments. What is the stress
in each material given that P = 10 kN?
A 500-mm-long, 16-mm-diameter rod made of a homogenous, isotropic
material is observed to increase in length by 300 micro-m, and to decrease in
diameter by 2.4 micro-m when subjected to an axial 12-kN load. Determine
the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
The steel bar has the original dimensions shown in the figure.
If it is subjected to an axial load of 50 kN, determine the
change in its length and its new cross-sectional dimensions at
section a–a. Est = 200 GPa, poissons ratio st = 0.29.
A circular steel bar having three segments is subjected to various forces at different
cross-sections as shown in Fig. Determine the necessary force to be applied at
Section C for the equilibrium of the bar. Also, find the total elongation of the bar.
Take E = 202 GPa.
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
• In the problems considered in the preceding section, we could always use free-
body diagrams and equilibrium equations to determine the internal forces
produced in the various portions of a member under given loading conditions.
There are many problems, however, where the internal forces cannot be
determined from statics alone. Oftentimes, even the reactions themselves—the
external forces—cannot be determined by simply drawing a free-body diagram of
the member and writing the corresponding equilibrium equations, because the
number of constraints involved exceeds the minimum number required to
maintain static equilibrium. In such cases, the equilibrium equations must be
complemented by relationships involving deformations obtained by considering
the geometry of the problem. Because statics is not sufficient to determine either
the reactions or the internal forces, problems of this type are called statically
indeterminate.
Clearly, one equation is not sufficient to
determine the two unknown internal forces P1
and P2. The problem is statically
indeterminate.
However, the geometry of the problem shows
that the deformations δ1 and δ2 of the rod
and tube must be equal.
Equations (1) and (3) can be solved
simultaneously for P1 and P2:
PROBLEMS INVOLVING TEMPERATURE CHANGES
The strain εT is called a thermal strain, as it is
caused by the change in temperature of the
rod. However, there is no stress associated
with the strain εT.
The problem created by the temperature change ΔT is statically indeterminate.
Therefore, the magnitude P of the reactions at the supports is
determined from the condition that the elongation of the rod is zero.
The absence of any strain in the rod applies
only in the case of a homogeneous rod of
uniform cross section.
Determine the values of the stress in portions AC
and CB of the steel bar shown. when the
temperature of the bar is -45°C knowing that a close
fit exists at both of the rigid supports when the
temperature is +24°C. Use the values E = 200 GPa
and a= 1L.7 X I0-6/oc for steel.
We first determine the reactions at the
supports. Since the problem is statically
indeterminate, we detach the bar from its
support at B and let it undergo the temperature
change
∆T= (-45°C)- (24°C) = -69°C
Applying now the
unknown force R8
at end 8 , we use
to express the
corresponding
deformation .
Substituting
A rigid steel plate is supported by three posts of high-strength concrete each having
an effective cross-sectional area A 40,000 mm2 and length L 2 m (see figure). Before
the load P is applied, the middle post is shorter than the others by an amount s 1.0
mm. Determine the maximum allowable load P allow if the allowable compressive
stress in the concrete is allow 20 MPa. (Use E 30 GPa for concrete.)
A sleeve in the form of a circular tube of length L is placed around a bolt and fitted
between washers at each end Fig.. The nut is then turned
until it is just snug. The sleeve and bolt are made of different materials and
have different cross-sectional areas. (Assume that the coefficient of thermal
expansion αS of the sleeve is greater than the coefficient αB of the bolt.)
(a) If the temperature of the entire assembly is raised by an amount ΔT, what
stresses σS and σB are developed in the sleeve and bolt, respectively?
(b) What is the increase δ in the length L of the sleeve and bolt?
Now we can write an equation of
compatibility expressing the fact
that the final elongation δ is the
same for both the sleeve and bolt.
The elongation of the sleeve is (δ1
-δ3 ) and of the bolt is ( δ2 - δ4)
therefore,
An equation of equilibrium is obtained from Fig. c, which is a free-body diagram of
the part of the assembly remaining after the head of the bolt is removed. Summing
forces in the horizontal direction gives
Special cases
• For instance, suppose that the bolt is rigid and therefore unaffected by
temperature changes. We can represent this situation by setting αB = 0 and letting
EB become infinitely large, thereby creating an assembly in which the sleeve is held
between rigid supports.
As a second special case, suppose that the sleeve and bolt are made of the same
material. Then both parts will expand freely and will lengthen the same amount
when the temperature changes. No forces or stresses will be developed. To see if
the derived equations predict this behavior, we substitute αS = α B =α
