Chapter 6: File Operations in C – Detailed Explanation

File handling in C allows a program to store and retrieve data permanently from secondary
storage (hard disks, SSDs). Unlike variables that are temporary and lost when a program
ends, files provide persistent storage, essential for real-world applications like databases,
logs, or configuration files.

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1. Introduction to File Operations

Files are sequences of data stored in secondary memory.

Uses of files:

Storing large amounts of data that cannot fit in memory

Sharing data between programs

Maintaining data permanently across program executions

Types of files in C:

1. Text files – Human-readable, stored as lines of characters.

2. Binary files – Stored in exact byte format of memory data; faster and more compact.

Reference: Thareja (2021), Balagurusamy (2019), Kanetkar (2020)

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2. File Handling Functions in C

C provides several standard functions in <stdio.h> for file operations:

Function Purpose

fopen()Opens a file

fclose()Closes a file

fgetc() Reads a character from a file

fgets() Reads a string/line from a file

fputc() Writes a character to a file

fputs() Writes a string to a file

fprintf() Writes formatted text

fread() Reads binary data

fwrite() Writes binary data

fseek() Moves the file pointer to a position

ftell() Returns the current position of the pointer

rewind() Moves the pointer to the beginning of the file

feof() Checks end-of-file

ferror() Checks file error

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3. Opening a File

A file must be opened before any operation. Use fopen() which returns a file pointer of type
FILE*.

Syntax:

FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);

Modes:

Mode Purpose

"r" Read text file

"w" Write text file (creates new or overwrite)

"a" Append text file

"rb" Read binary file

"wb" Write binary file

"ab" Append binary file

"r+" Read/write text file

"rb+" Read/write binary file

Example:

FILE *fp = fopen("example.txt", "r");

if (fp == NULL) {

perror("Error opening file");

} else {

printf("File opened successfully.\n");

Notes:

Always check if fopen() returns NULL.

Binary files use modes ending with b.

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4. Closing a File

After finishing file operations, close the file using fclose():

fclose(fp);

Why close a file?

Ensures all data in buffers is written to disk

Frees system resources

Prevents data corruption

Reference: Kalicharan (2022), Forouzan & Afyouni (2023)

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5. Reading from a File

5.1 Text File Reading

Character by character: fgetc()

char ch;

while ((ch = fgetc(fp)) != EOF) {

putchar(ch);

Line by line: fgets()

char line[100];

fgets(line, 100, fp);

Formatted reading: fscanf()

int num;

fscanf(fp, "%d", &num);

5.2 Binary File Reading

Binary files store data in the exact memory format.

fread() reads binary data into memory:

fread(&buffer, sizeof(data_type), count, fp);

Example:

int num;

FILE *fp = fopen("data.bin", "rb");

fread(&num, sizeof(int), 1, fp);

Note: Binary files preserve exact data structure; useful for numbers, structs, or large
datasets.

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6. Writing to a File

6.1 Text File Writing

Character: fputc()

String: fputs()

Formatted text: fprintf()

FILE *fp = fopen("output.txt", "w");

fputs("Hello C Programming!\n", fp);

fprintf(fp, "Number: %d\n", 123);

fclose(fp);

6.2 Binary File Writing

Use fwrite() to write data:

int num = 1234;

fwrite(&num, sizeof(int), 1, fp);

Notes:

Binary writing is faster and stores exact bytes.

Always match reading and writing data types in binary files.

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7. File Pointers

A file pointer keeps track of:

The current position in the file

Whether the file is open

Buffer status

7.1 Moving the File Pointer

fseek(fp, offset, origin) – Move pointer

SEEK_SET – Start

SEEK_CUR – Current position

SEEK_END – End of file

ftell(fp) – Returns current position

rewind(fp) – Moves to beginning

Example:

fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);

long size = ftell(fp);

rewind(fp);

Reference: Thareja (2021), Kanetkar (2020)

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8. Binary vs Text Files

Feature Text File Binary File

Content Human-readable Raw bytes

StorageLarger Compact
Functions fgetc, fgets, fputs, fprintf fread, fwrite

Speed Slower Faster

Flexibility Easy to edit Cannot edit manually

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9. Error Handling in File Operations

Errors can occur due to:

File does not exist

No permission to read/write

Disk full

Methods:

1. Check if fopen() returns NULL

if (fp == NULL) perror("File error");

2. Detect end-of-file: feof(fp)

3. Check read/write errors: ferror(fp)

Example:

if (ferror(fp)) {

printf("Error during file operation.\n");

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10. Practical Programs

Program 1 – Text File Reading

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

FILE *fp = fopen("sample.txt", "r");

char ch;

if (!fp) { perror("Error"); return 1; }

 while ((ch = fgetc(fp)) != EOF) putchar(ch);

fclose(fp);

return 0;

Program 2 – Writing Data to Text File

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

FILE *fp = fopen("output.txt", "w");

if (!fp) { perror("Error"); return 1; }

fputs("Welcome to C File Handling!\n", fp);

fclose(fp);

return 0;

Program 3 – Binary File Write & Read

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

FILE *fp;

int num = 12345, readNum;

fp = fopen("data.bin", "wb");

fwrite(&num, sizeof(int), 1, fp);

fclose(fp);

fp = fopen("data.bin", "rb");

fread(&readNum, sizeof(int), 1, fp);

printf("Number read: %d\n", readNum);

fclose(fp);

return 0;
}

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11. Summary

File handling is essential for persistent storage.

Text files: human-readable, slower.

Binary files: fast, exact data, compact.

Always open and close files properly.

File pointers allow random access.

Use error handling to prevent crashes.

Master reading, writing, and manipulating both text and binary files for robust
programming.

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Chapter 7: Standard Libraries and Header Files in C Programming

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1. Introduction

In C programming, header files are files containing function declarations, macro definitions,
constants, and data types. Header files allow the programmer to modularize code and reuse
functionalities across multiple programs.

Header files are classified into:

1. Standard Header Files – provided by C for common operations.

2. User-Defined Header Files – created by programmers to encapsulate reusable code.

Using header files improves readability, maintainability, and reduces redundancy in

programs.

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2. Standard Library Header Files

C comes with a set of pre-defined standard libraries, each having specialized functions.
Some commonly used libraries are:

stdio.h – Standard input/output functions.

stdlib.h – General utility functions.

string.h – String manipulation functions.

math.h – Mathematical functions.

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2.1 stdio.h (Standard Input/Output Library)

Functions provided by stdio.h include:

Function Description

printf()Prints formatted data to the console.

scanf() Reads formatted input from the user.

getchar() Reads a single character.

putchar() Prints a single character.

fgets() Reads a string from input.

fputs() Prints a string.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

char name[50];

int age;

printf("Enter your name: ");

fgets(name, sizeof(name), stdin);

printf("Enter your age: ");

scanf("%d", &age);

printf("Hello %sYou are %d years old.\n", name, age);

return 0;

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2.2 stdlib.h (Standard Library)

Functions in stdlib.h include:

Function Description

malloc() Allocates memory dynamically.

calloc()Allocates zero-initialized memory.

free() Deallocates memory.

exit() Terminates a program.

atoi(), atof() Convert strings to integers/floats.

rand() Generates random numbers.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int));

if(ptr == NULL) {

printf("Memory allocation failed!\n");

exit(1);

*ptr = 42;

printf("Value = %d\n", *ptr);

free(ptr);

return 0;

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2.3 string.h (String Handling Library)

Functions include:
Function Description

strlen()Returns the length of a string.

strcpy() Copies one string to another.

strcat()Concatenates strings.

strcmp() Compares two strings.

strstr() Finds substring in a string.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main() {

char str1[50] = "Hello, ";

char str2[] = "World!";

strcat(str1, str2);

printf("Concatenated string: %s\n", str1);

printf("Length: %lu\n", strlen(str1));

return 0;

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2.4 math.h (Mathematical Functions)

Common functions include:

Function Description

sqrt(x) Square root of x.

pow(x,y) x raised to power y.

sin(x) Sine function.

cos(x) Cosine function.

tan(x) Tangent function.

fabs(x) Absolute value of x.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <math.h>

int main() {

double num = 16.0;

printf("Square root = %.2f\n", sqrt(num));

printf("2^3 = %.2f\n", pow(2,3));

return 0;

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3. User-Defined Header Files

User-defined header files allow programmers to create custom functions, macros, and data
types for reuse.

3.1 Creating a Header File

math_operations.h

#ifndef MATH_OPERATIONS_H

#define MATH_OPERATIONS_H

int add(int a, int b);

int subtract(int a, int b);

int multiply(int a, int b);

float divide(int a, int b);

#endif

3.2 Implementing Functions

math_operations.c

#include "math_operations.h"

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

int subtract(int a, int b) { return a - b; }

int multiply(int a, int b) { return a * b; }

float divide(int a, int b) { return (float)a/b; }

3.3 Using User-Defined Header File

#include <stdio.h>

#include "math_operations.h"

int main() {

int x=10, y=5;

printf("Add: %d\n", add(x,y));

printf("Subtract: %d\n", subtract(x,y));

printf("Multiply: %d\n", multiply(x,y));

printf("Divide: %.2f\n", divide(x,y));

return 0;

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4. Practical Programs Using Standard and User-Defined Libraries

4.1 Program 1: Calculator

Uses user-defined math library.

Performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.

4.2 Program 2: Student Record System

Uses stdio.h and string.h.

Stores, displays, and searches student records.

4.3 Program 3: Banking System

Uses stdlib.h for dynamic memory.

Deposit, withdraw, and balance operations.

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5. Projects

5.1 Project 1: Library Management System

Features:

Add, delete, search books.

Track issued books.

Save data using file handling.

5.2 Project 2: Inventory Management System

Features:

Add, update, and delete product records.

Generate stock and sales reports.

Utilize user-defined header functions for calculations.

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6. Summary

Header files are reusable code units.

Standard libraries provide ready-made functions.

User-defined libraries allow modular programming.

Practical applications include calculators, record systems, and management software.

Projects demonstrate full-scale usage of libraries and header files.

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3. Adding step-by-step explanations for practical programs.

4. Adding full projects with code, input/output, and explanations.

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Section 1: Practicals

Practical 1 – Calculator using User-Defined Library

Algorithm:

1. Start

2. Input two numbers

3. Display operation menu: Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide

4. Take user choice

5. Perform operation using functions from user-defined library

6. Display result

7. End

Code:
math_operations.h

#ifndef MATH_OPERATIONS_H

#define MATH_OPERATIONS_H

int add(int a, int b);

int subtract(int a, int b);

int multiply(int a, int b);

float divide(int a, int b);

#endif

math_operations.c

#include "math_operations.h"

int add(int a,int b){ return a+b; }

int subtract(int a,int b){ return a-b; }

int multiply(int a,int b){ return a*b; }

float divide(int a,int b){ return (float)a/b; }

main.c

#include <stdio.h>

#include "math_operations.h"
int main() {

int x,y,choice;

printf("Enter first number: "); scanf("%d",&x);

printf("Enter second number: "); scanf("%d",&y);

printf("1.Add 2.Subtract 3.Multiply 4.Divide\nChoose operation: ");

scanf("%d",&choice);

switch(choice){

case 1: printf("Sum = %d\n", add(x,y)); break;

case 2: printf("Difference = %d\n", subtract(x,y)); break;

case 3: printf("Product = %d\n", multiply(x,y)); break;

case 4: printf("Quotient = %.2f\n", divide(x,y)); break;

default: printf("Invalid choice!\n");

return 0;

Sample Output:

Enter first number: 10

Enter second number: 5

Choose operation: 4

Quotient = 2.00
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Practical 2 – Student Record Management System

Algorithm:

1. Start

2. Input number of students

3. Create array of structures Student

4. Input name, roll, marks for each student

5. Display all student records

6. End
Code:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Student {

char name[50];

int roll;

float marks;

};

int main() {

int n;

printf("Enter number of students: "); scanf("%d",&n);

struct Student s[n];

for(int i=0;i<n;i++){

printf("Enter name: "); scanf(" %[^\n]", s[i].name);

printf("Enter roll: "); scanf("%d",&s[i].roll);

printf("Enter marks: "); scanf("%f",&s[i].marks);

printf("\nStudent Records:\n");

for(int i=0;i<n;i++)

printf("Name: %s, Roll: %d, Marks: %.2f\n", s[i].name, s[i].roll, s[i].marks);

 return 0;

Sample Output:

Enter number of students: 2

Enter name: Alice

Enter roll: 101

Enter marks: 89.5

Enter name: Bob

Enter roll: 102

Enter marks: 92.0

Student Records:

Name: Alice, Roll: 101, Marks: 89.50

Name: Bob, Roll: 102, Marks: 92.00

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Practical 3 – Banking System

Algorithm:

1. Start
2. Input account name and number

3. Initialize balance = 0

4. Display menu: Deposit, Withdraw, Display, Exit

5. Perform chosen operation

6. Repeat until exit

7. End

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Account {

char name[50];
 int acc_no;

float balance;

};

void deposit(struct Account *a,float amt){ a->balance+=amt; printf("Amount deposited

successfully.\n"); }

void withdraw(struct Account *a,float amt){ if(amt>a->balance) printf("Insufficient

balance!\n"); else { a->balance-=amt; printf("Amount withdrawn successfully.\n"); } }

void display(struct Account a){ printf("Name: %s, Account No: %d, Balance: %.2f\n",
a.name, a.acc_no, a.balance); }

int main() {

struct Account acc;

printf("Enter account name: "); scanf(" %[^\n]", acc.name);

printf("Enter account number: "); scanf("%d",&acc.acc_no);

acc.balance=0;

int choice; float amount;

do {

printf("\n1.Deposit 2.Withdraw 3.Display 4.Exit\nChoose option: ");

scanf("%d",&choice);

switch(choice){

case 1: printf("Enter amount to deposit: "); scanf("%f",&amount);

deposit(&acc,amount); break;

case 2: printf("Enter amount to withdraw: "); scanf("%f",&amount);

withdraw(&acc,amount); break;

case 3: display(acc); break;

case 4: printf("Exiting Banking System...\n"); break;

default: printf("Invalid option!\n");

 }

} while(choice!=4);

return 0;

Sample Output:

Deposit 1000 → Amount deposited successfully

Withdraw 500 → Amount withdrawn successfully

Display → Name: John Doe, Account No: 12345, Balance: 500.00

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Section 2: Projects

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Project 1 – Library Management System

Algorithm:

1. Start
2. Declare Book structure

3. Functions: addBook, issueBook, returnBook, displayBook

4. Initialize books

5. Display books

6. Issue/Return books based on user input

7. Repeat until exit

8. End

Code:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

struct Book { int id; char title[50]; char author[50]; int available; };

void addBook(struct Book *b,int id,char *title,char *author){ b->id=id; strcpy(b->title,title);

strcpy(b->author,author); b->available=1; }

void issueBook(struct Book *b){ if(b->available){ b->available=0; printf("Book issued

successfully.\n"); } else printf("Book not available.\n"); }

void returnBook(struct Book *b){ b->available=1; printf("Book returned successfully.\n"); }

void displayBook(struct Book b){ printf("ID:%d, Title:%s, Author:%s, %s\

n",b.id,b.title,b.author,b.available?"Available":"Issued"); }

int main() {

struct Book b1,b2;

addBook(&b1,1,"C Programming","K&R");

addBook(&b2,2,"Let Us C","Kanetkar");

int choice,id;

do {

printf("\n1.Display 2.Issue 3.Return 4.Exit\nEnter choice: "); scanf("%d",&choice);

switch(choice){

case 1: displayBook(b1); displayBook(b2); break;

case 2: printf("Enter Book ID to issue: "); scanf("%d",&id);

if(id==b1.id) issueBook(&b1); else if(id==b2.id) issueBook(&b2); else

printf("Invalid ID!\n"); break;

case 3: printf("Enter Book ID to return: "); scanf("%d",&id);

if(id==b1.id) returnBook(&b1); else if(id==b2.id) returnBook(&b2); else

printf("Invalid ID!\n"); break;
 case 4: printf("Exiting Library System...\n"); break;

default: printf("Invalid choice!\n");

} while(choice!=4);

return 0;

Sample Output:

Display → ID:1, Title:C Programming, Author:K&R, Available

Issue ID 1 → Book issued successfully

Display → ID:1, Title:C Programming, Author:K&R, Issued

Return ID 1 → Book returned successfully

Display → ID:1, Title:C Programming, Author:K&R, Available

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Project 2 – Inventory Management System

Algorithm:

1. Start
2. Declare Product structure

3. Functions: addProduct, displayProduct, updateStock

4. Initialize products

5. Display products

6. Update stock based on user input

7. Repeat until exit

8. End

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>
struct Product { int id; char name[50]; int quantity; float price; };

void addProduct(struct Product *p,int id,char *name,int qty,float price){ p->id=id; strcpy(p-
>name,name); p->quantity=qty; p->price=price; }

void displayProduct(struct Product p){ printf("ID:%d, Name:%s, Quantity:%d, Price:%.2f\

n",p.id,p.name,p.quantity,p.price); }

void updateStock(struct Product *p,int qty){ p->quantity+=qty; printf("Stock updated. New

quantity: %d\n",p->quantity); }

int main() {

struct Product p1;

addProduct(&p1,101,"Laptop",10,50000.0);

int choice,qty;

do {

printf("\n1.Display 2.Update Stock 3.Exit\nEnter choice: "); scanf("%d",&choice);

switch(choice){

case 1: displayProduct(p1); break;

case 2: printf("Enter quantity to add (negative to reduce): "); scanf("%d",&qty);

updateStock(&p1,qty); break;

case 3: printf("Exiting Inventory System...\n"); break;

default: printf("Invalid choice!\n");

} while(choice!=3);

return 0;

}
Sample Output:

Display → ID:101, Name:Laptop, Quantity:10, Price:50000.00

Update +5 → Stock updated. New quantity: 15

Update -3 → Stock updated. New quantity: 12