CONCRETE

- Inherent benefits of strength, durability, resilience, safety and affordability to create vital
infrastructure

 CEMENT – key component in concrete and mortar for various building applications
 ROLE OF WATER – for formation, setting, and curing of concrete
 ROLE OF AGGREGATE – aggregate materials such as gravel help to make concrete mixes
more compact

TYPES OF CONCRETE

 NORMAL STRENGTH CONCRETE – standard and most commonly used type of concrete for
GENERAL PURPOSES
 HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE – achieve COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS GREATER than normal
strength concrete
 LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE – lower density than normal concrete
o Reduced weight is essential
 HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE – ADDITIONAL MASS or RADIATION SHIELDING (NUCLEAR POWER
PLANTS)
 READY-MIX CONCRETE – pre-mixed concrete
 Manufactured in a BATCHING PLANT (ready to use state)
 PREVIOUS CONCRETE – PERMEABLE or POROUS concrete
 Allow water to pass through, promoting drainage and reducing runoff
 SHOTCRETE – sprayed onto surfaces using high-velocity air
 For repairing and reinforcing structures like swimming pool
 FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE – includes materials like STEEL, GLASS, SYNTHETIC FIVERS
 To enhance its tensile strength and flexibility
 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE (SCC) – flows easily into place without the need for
mechanical vibration
 ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC) – used in HEAVY-DUTY APPLICATIONS
 Dam construction and pavement for roads

CONSTRUCTION APPLICATION CONCRETE

BRIDGES AND OVERPASSES

- CONCRETE – concrete’s high compressive strength makes it ideal for making bridges and
overpasses (PRE-MADE CONCRETE) for quick construction and durability

TUNNELS
- CONCRETE – for lining and structural support
o SHOTCRETE is applied to spray concrete layer to provide stability

COMMON ISSUES FOUND IN USING CONCRETE

1. CRACKING
2. SPALLING
3. ABRASION AND EROSION
4. SCALING
 5. CRAZING

• Cement Composition
• Types of Aggregates
• Types of Additives
• Concrete Masonry Units
CEMENT COMPSITION
• Clinker - Derived from heating a mixture of limestone and clay in a kiln.
Role: Provides the main binding properties to the cement.

• Gypsum - Included during the grinding process.

• Role: Regulates the setting time of the cement.

• Fly Ash or Pozzolan - Present in PPC.

• Role: Enhances durability, reduces environmental impact, and contributes to improved
workability.

• Admixtures - Plasticizers,
• Accelerators, or retarders.
• Modify specific properties like setting time, workability, or strength.

• Limestone or Calcium Carbonate - Added to adjust the chemical composition if needed

• Silica, Alumina, and Iron Oxide - Natural Components: Present in raw materials.
• Influence: Proportions influence the cement's final properties, such as color and strength

TYPES OF AGGREGATES
1. Natural Aggregates
2. Manufactured Aggregates
3. Artificial Aggregates

NATURAL AGGREGATES
- Gravel - Origin: Naturally occurring, rounded rock fragments.

- Sand - Composition: Finely divided mineral and rock particles

- Crushed Stone - granite, limestone, and basalt.

- used in concrete, asphalt, and as a base material for construction project

- River Rock - Smooth, rounded stones from riverbeds.

- Landscaping and decorative purposes.

MANUFACTURED AGGREGATE
• Recycled Concrete Aggregate -
• Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA)
• Blast Furnace Slag Aggregate
 • Fly Ash Aggregate

• Recycled Concrete Aggregate - Derived from crushing and reusing concrete debris.
Environmentally friendly alternative, suitable for non-structural applications.

• Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) - Production: Clay pellets expanded by heat treatment.

• Blast Furnace Slag Aggregate - Source: Byproduct of iron production.

Properties: Lightweight, durable, and resistant to alkali-aggregate reactions.

• Fly Ash Aggregate - Byproduct of coal combustion in power plants.

Properties: Pozzolanic material with cementitious properties.

ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATE
• Geopolymer Aggregates
• Plastic Aggregate
• Rubber Aggregate

• Geopolymer Aggregates - Composition: Aluminosilicate materials activated by alkaline solutions.

Eco-Friendly: Low carbon footprint compared to traditional aggregates.
Applications: High-performance concrete, particularly in environmentally conscious projects

• Plastic Aggregate - Source: Recycled plastic waste.

Properties: Lightweight, insulation properties.
Applications: Non-structural uses, like landscaping and walkways.

• Rubber Aggregate - Source: Recycled rubber from tires.

Properties: Elastic, impact-resistant.
Applications: Playgrounds, sports surfaces, and shock-absorbing pavements.

TYPES OF ADDITIVES

• Water Reducers (Plasticizers)

• Air-Entraining Agents
• Set Retarders
• Accelerators

• Water Reducers (Plasticizers) - additives used to reduce the amount of water needed in
concrete mixtures without sacrificing workability.

• Air-Entraining Agents - additives that introduce tiny air bubbles into concrete mixtures. These
bubbles improve the workability of the concrete, enhance its resistance to freeze-thaw cycles,
and reduce bleeding and segregation.

• Set Retarders - additives used to slow down the setting time of concrete, extending the time
available for mixing, placing, and finishing. They are particularly useful in hot weather
conditions or when working with large concrete pours, allowing for better control over the
concrete's setting properties.
 • Accelerators - additives that speed up the setting and early strength development of concrete.
They are often used in cold weather conditions to help concrete cure faster and reduce the risk
of frost damage

Types of Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU)

• Concrete Block
• Hollow Block
• Bricks
• Building Stone
• Cast Stone
• Glass Block

• Concrete Block
• Hollow Block - a practical and versatile solution for creating walls and partitions in buildings.

• Bricks - rectangular blocks typically made of clay that have been hardened in a kiln.

• Building Stone (Marble, Granite, Limestone): These natural materials are mined and cut into a
variety of sizes and shapes for use in construction.

• Cast Stone - used in a variety of architectural applications, but its proportion in construction is
smaller compared to bricks and concrete blocks due to its specialized use for decorative
elements.

• Glass Block - relatively smaller proportion in construction compared to other materials listed,
primarily used for specific architectural features rather than structural components.

REBAR - “reinforcing bar” or “reinforcement bar”

- metal bar that is used to help increase the tensile strength of concrete. As a result, it helps
concrete structures withstand tensile, bending, torsion, and shearing loads.
CARBON STEEL REBAR - most common form of steel rebar. This is commonly used as a tensioning
device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures holding the concrete in compression.

STAINLESS STEEL REBAR - highly resistant to corrosion and are used in corrosive environments.

EPOXY – COATED REBARS - coated with epoxy to improve corrosion resistance, often used in
environments where rusting is a concern

COMPOSITE REBARS - from fibers such as glass fiber-reinforced polymer or carbon fiber-reinforced
polymer, these rebars are lightweight and corrosion-resistant

REBARS are made of:

- Carbon steel due to their cost-effectiveness and suitability for most construction applications.
- Stainless steel used in environments where corrosion resistance is a concern
- Composite rebars used in specialized applications requiring lightweight and non-corrosive

METALS - used in the building and construction sector.

- first choice material for structures, reinforcements, cladding, roofing, window frames,
plumbing, heating equipment

\
FERROUS METALS – consist mostly iron
- Prone to rusting if exposed to moisture and can be picked up by a magnet
- The rusting and magnetic properties in ferrous metals are both down due to the iron

EXAMPLES
1. MILD STEEL
2. CAST IRON
3. HIGH CARBON STEEL
4. HIGH SPEED STEEL
5. STAINLESS STEEL

NON-FERROUS METAL – metals that don’t have any iron

- Not attracted to magnet and they don’t rust the same way when exposed to moisture
- It includes COPPER, ALUMINUM, TIN, ZINC

EXAMPLES
1. ALUMINUM
2. COPPPER
3. ZINC
4. TIN
5. LEAD
6. SILVER
7. GOLD
8. MAGNESIUM

BEAMS - type of structure used in construction and engineering to provide a safe and efficient load path
that effectively distributes weight throughout the foundation of a building.
- These beams support the load by resisting being bent under the load's pressure.
COLUMNS - resisting lateral loads such as wind or seismic forces, contributing to the overall stability
and structural integrity of the building.
- used in residential building construction to support walls, floors, and roofs. They can also be
used to create large open spaces and to support heavy loads, such as in the case of multi-storey
buildings
- to support beams which the upper parts of walls or ceilings.

MIDTERM

CARPENTRY - SKILLED TRADE THAT INVOLVES WORKING WITH WOOD TO CREATE FUNCTIONAL AND
DECORATIVE STRUCTURES
 - IS THE SKILLED TRADE OF WORKING WITH WOOD, ENCOMPASSING ACTIVITIES SUCH AS
CUTTING, SHAPING, JOINING, AND FINISHING WOOD TO CREATE FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC
STRUCTURES

WOOD IS A VERSATILE AND NATURAL MATERIAL THAT HAS BEEN USED BY HUMANS FOR THOUSANDS
OF YEARS.
- IT IS DERIVED FROM THE STEMS AND BRANCHES OF TREES, AND ITS PROPERTIES MAKE IT
SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS, INCLUDING CONSTRUCTION, FURNITURE MAKING, AND
CRAFTING.

Joinery - two or more sections of wood are connected.

1. Butt Joint: simple joint where two pieces of wood are joined at their ends

2. Mortise and Tenon Joint: strong and durable joint where a projection (tenon) on one piece fits
into a hole (mortise) on the other piece

3. Dovetail Joint: strength and decorative appeal. It involves interlocking wedge-shaped tails on
one piece with corresponding notches (pins) on the other

4. Dado Joint: a groove is cut across the grain of one piece of wood, and another piece fits into it

5. Rabbet Joint: This joint involves removing material from the edge of one piece to allow another
piece to fit into it.

COMMON ISSUES FOUND IN USING WOOD

1. MOISTURE AND ROT
2. WARPING, TWISTING, AND CUPPING
3. SPLITTING AND CRACKING
4. UNEVEN STAINING OR FINISHING
5. INSECT INFESTATION

GLASS FENESTRATION AND GLAZING

GLASS – VERSATILE MATERIAL that has been used in architecture

- TRANSPARENCY, MASKING, FABRICATION ABILITY, ADAPTABILITY, and SPECIALISATION
HIGHLIGHTS
- Can be TRANSPARENT, TRANSLUCENT, OPAQUE, DIFFUSED or STAINED
- SOUND INSULATING, HEAT ABSORBENT, HEAT REFLECTING, WEATHER RESISTANT, NON-
ABRASIVE, AND INCOMBUSTIBLE

STENGTH CATEGORIES
 1. CONCELED
2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED
3. FULLY TEMPERED GLASS

1. LAMINATED GLASS – PLASTIC INTERLAYER, providing GOOD THERMAL and ACOUSTIC

INSULATION

2. COATED GLASS – COVERED with LOW-EMISSIVITY COATINGS to improve THERMAL

PERFORMANCE.

3. TINTED GLASS – minerals that color the glass

4. INSULATING GLASS UNITS –SPACERS that ENCLOSE SEALED AIR SPACE with DESICCANT

5. ANNEALED GLASS – BREAKS EASILY, typically LONG, SHARP SHARDS

6. HEAT – STRENGTHENED GLASS – RESISTANT TO BREAKAGE, two times as strong as annealed

glass, BREAKS IN LARGE SHARDS

7. FULLY TEMPRED GLASS –FOUR TIMES AS STONG as annealed glass, SHATTERS COMPLETELY in
SMALL PIECES, VACATING the FRAME AFTER IMPACT

GLASS FENESTRATION – INSTALLATION OF GLASS WINDOWS and DOORS

- USE GLASS to make the building ENERGY EFFICIENT
- Understanding the BUILDING REQUIREMENTS and SELECTING the OPTIMUM and its processing

1. FENESTRATION SYSTEM – ALL OPENINGS in the BUILDING ENVELOPE or FACADES CURTAIN

WALLS, WINDOWS, DOORS, and SKYLIGHTS AESTHETIC FEATURE, affects BUILDING
PERFORMANCE

2. CURTAIN WALLS -THIN and use ALUMINUM FRAMES. Containing IN-FILLS of GLASS, METAL
PANELS, or THIN STONE

3. STICK SYSTEMS – MULLIONS and the glass/panels are INSTALLED PIECE BY PIECE

4. MODULAR SYSTEM – made of large units(modules) ASSEMBLED and GLAZED in the FACTORY
and then assembled on-site

WINDOW – WALL OPENING, usually fitted with GLASS FRAMES to admit light and air
 - ALUMINUM, FIBERGLASS, VINYL, STEEL WOOD, PVC

 FIXED WINDOWS – FRAME with INFILL SEALED TOGETHER

Better resistance to air and water infiltration and also LESS MAINTAINANCE

 OPERABLE WINDOWS – allows NATURAL VENTILATION FRAME and SASH that are sealed by
WEATHERSTRIPS.
- COMPRESSION SEAL WINDOWS – they reduced FRICTION and wear of the WEATHERSTRIPPING \

DOORS

 REVOLVING DOORS and SWING DOORS– serving ENTRANCE/EXIT FUNCTION

 INDUSTRIAL DOORS – serving MATERAIL HANDLING and SECURITY FUNCTIONS

 SKYLIGHTS- SLOPED GALZING SYSTEMS

- Provide DAYLIGHTING., ENERGY SAVINGS
- ENGINEEREDSYSTEMS, assembled from STANDARD EXTRUSIONS provided by the manufacturer

2 COMPONENTS
1. SUPPORTING MEMBERS
2. INFILL PANELS

GLASS GLAZING – INSTALLATION of GLASS WINDOWS, DOORS

GLAZING – all the GLASS WITHIN THE STRUCTURES or the INSTALLATION of any piece within a
SASH/FRAME
- Means the GLASS PART, ASPECTS od an ASSEMBLY in GLASS FILMS, FRAMES, AND FURNISHINGS

GLAZING METHODS

 DRY GLAZED METHOD – RUBBER GASKETS are COMPRESSED IN PLACE.

- Panels are glazed

 WET GLAZED METHOD – ADHERING AGENT, applied to an ALUMINUM FRAMED before the
window panel

 POINTED SUPPORT GLASS SYSTEMS METHOD – 1960s TEMPRED GLASS has HOLES in it

 CABLE NET METHOD – quite COSTLY and can take a lot of time to install properly
  DOUBLE SKIN WALL METHOD – COMPLEX GLAZING METHOD, two or more layers of
glass/façade
Space between layers uses the ENERGY FROM THE SUN to create WARM AIR that in ventilated
throughout the building

GLAZING TYPES
 FLOAT GLASS – process of MOLTEN GLASS to create LARGE and THIN FLAT PANELS

 ANNEALED GLASS – GLASS IS COOLED in a very CONTROLLED and SLOW MANNER

 HEAT STRENGHENED GLASS – annealed glass that has been REHEATED to 12,000 degrees
Fahrenheit

 FULLY TEMPERED GLASS – HEATING OF ANNEALED GLASS, but it is COOLED DOWN MUCH
FASTER
 INETERNA; SECTION is FLUID FOR A LONGER PERIOD

 LAMINATED GLASS – TWO LAYERS of glass, FUSED TOGETHER with a layer of POLYVINYL
BUTYRAL

 WIRED GLASS – places in BETWEEN the LAYERS of glass to STAY TOGETHER

 LOW EMISSIVITY GLASS – LOW -E GLASS, REFLECT LONG WAVE INFRARED RADIATION

 SELF – CLEANING GLASS – TRANSPARENT COATING APPLIED. RAYS OF THE SUN BREAK DOWN
ANY DIRT tha BUILDS UP on the outside of the window

GLASS TYPES

1. SINGLE GLAZING – SINGLE PANEL OF GLASS

Use it with a MORE ENERGY-EFFICIENT (low-e glass)

2. DOUBLE OR TRIBLE GLAZING – INSULATED GLASS UNITS (ICU)

- Combination of 2 or more layers of glass sealed into a FRAME with a gap

PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

Plastic' is a general name given to a wide range of synthetic materials that are based on
polymers
5 COMMON PLASTICS
ACRYLIC - great optical clarity, scratch resistance and rigidity
COMPOSITES - plastic construction materials made of two or more constituent materials
that improve each other's characteristics when combined

POLYCARBONATE - create sustainable plastic building supplies, since it is a thermoplastic

that can be melted dow
POLYPROPYLENE - used for a variety of plastic building materials products that require
heat, fatigue or shatter resistance

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE - - Widely used for plastic construction materials thanks to being
inexpensive and durable

PVC - Polyvinyl chloride is a synthetic resin (or polymer) to which stabilizers and plasticizers
are added to prevent its degradation in light and heat

ALUMINUM- produced from bauxite, an abundant mineral in the world, especially in

tropical countries

INSULATING MATERIALS - used to prevent the passage of water, noise and sudden
changes in temperature. The building materials insulating

ENDINGS - used to cover walls and floors. They are paints (acrylic, plastic, enamels, etc.),
carpets or wallpapers

PAINT AND PAINT PRODUCTS

 Wood is typically measured in board feet (abbreviated as "bd. ft.") for lumber and timber
products.

• Metal is commonly measured in various units depending on its form and application.
Some common units include pounds (lbs) for sheet metal or structural steel, linear feet
(ft) for metal bars or pipes, and square feet (ft²) or cubic feet (ft³) for metal panels or
components.

• Masonry and concrete materials are typically measured in cubic feet (ft³) or cubic
yards (yd³) for bulk quantities such as concrete mix, mortar, or aggregates
 • Drywall and plaster materials are commonly measured in sheets or panels, with
standard sizes such as 4 feet by 8 feet (4' x 8') or 4 feet by 12 feet (4' x 12').

• ASBESTOS PAINT - It is used for covering leakage in metal roofs, for patch works, for
protecting surfaces from acid gases and steam.
GRAPHITE PAINTS - It is very widely used to coat metallic structures to inhibit corrosion.

CASEIN PAINTS - is a protein which is available in milk curd, is taken and is mixed with
white pigments to get casein paints

Bituminous paints are obtained by dissolving tar or asphalt in petroleum or white spirit

Synthetic rubber paints are made by dissolving synthetic resins in the suitable solvents

Bronze paints are reflective paints which are widely used on radiators

Oil paints are nothing but normal paints which usually contains a base and vehicle

The Binder is the primary component that holds the paint together and adheres it to the surface
being painted.

Pigments are finely ground particles that give paint its color.

Solvents are liquids that dissolve or disperse the binder and pigments, making the paint easier to
apply and providing the desired consistency.

Additives are additional ingredients added to paint to modify its properties and enhance
performance

STUDY THEM UNIT CONVERSION

Esp VOLUME/CAPACITY, DISTANCE, and MASS/WEIGHT