Lecture 2 and 3 Notes

ME 147
System Dynamics and Control

1 Mechanical Transfer Functions

1.1 Translational Systems

Translational systems is the familiar spring-damper-mass systems that have the equation of motion
(for 1D systems):
mẍ(t) + cẋ(t) + kx(t) = F (t) (1)

Figure 1: Translation Mechanical System

The force in each component in Figure 1 is modelled mathematically using the displacement x(t)
as reference response. All Laplace transforms of the response is based on x(t). Figure 2 shows the
corresponding Laplace Transforms.

Figure 2: Translation Mechanical System components

X(s)
The transfer function for a translational mechanical system, F (s) is then given by:

X(s) 1
= 2
(2)
F(s) Ms + Cs + K

Note that the symbol for the damping coefficient can still be c even though it is shown here as fv .
The symbol presented here aims to differentiate between viscous damping and coulomb damping
where the latter has a force characterisation that grows non-linearly with x(t).

1.2 Rotational Systems

Rotational Systems can be modelled similarly from translation systems. The only difference is that
the reference response is θ(t) instead of x(t). Here, the equivalence is given by:

1. Translational spring, K : Rotational spring, K

2. Translational viscous damper, C : Rotational viscous damper, D

3. Mass, M : Inertial mass, J

4. Force, F : Torque T

5. displacement, x : angular displacement, θ

The resulting equation is then:

J θ̈(t) + Dθ̇(t) + Kθ(t) = T (t) (3)

Figure 3: Rotational Mechanical System

This similarity carries on with the Laplace transform for rotational systems with θ(t) as the reference
response.

Figure 4: Rotational Mechanical System components

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 θ(s)
The transfer function for a translational mechanical system, F (s) is then given by:

θ(s) 1
= 2 (4)
T(s) Js + Ds + K

1.3 Gearing

Incorporating gears into a system allows for the transformation of the resulting torque and angular
speed at the output shaft. Figure 5 shows two shafts with an output shaft having an angular
displacement of θ2 (t).

Figure 5: Mechanical System with Gears

The torque applied to the first shaft is transformed by the relation:

T1 θ1 = T2 θ2 (5)

showing an inverse relationship between the torque on the shaft and the angular speed. This follows
the relation of P = T ω where for the input or output power is conserved.
N1
The gear ratio, N2 transforms the input torque and angular displacement with the following relation.

N1 θ1 = N2 θ2 (6)
N1 θ2 T1
= = (7)
N2 θ1 T2
(8)

Now, a transfer function with the output shaft angular displacement, θ2 (t) can be setup with the
input torque at the first shaft as input, T1 (t).

(Js2 + Ds + K)θ2 (s) = T2 (s) (9)

N2
(Js2 + Ds + K)θ2 (s) = T1 (s) (10)
N1
θ2 (s) N2 1
= (11)
T1 (s) N1 Js2 + Ds + K

Additionally, we can also determine the transfer function of Tθ11(s)

(s) using the components from Figure
3. This is usually solved from the driver of the shaft such as a motor, which is discussed in the
Section 4.

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 N2
(Js2 + Ds + K)θ2 (s) = T1 (s) (12)
N1
N1 N2
(Js2 + Ds + K) θ1 (s) = T1 (s) (13)
N2 N1
 2
θ1 (s) N2 1
= 2
(14)
T1 (s) N1 Js + Ds + K

2 Electrical Transfer Functions

Electrical circuits can also be analysed using transfer functions. In fact, much of modern control
involves electrical components that have well-defined mathematical representations. The discussion
on electrical transfer functions builds up on the understanding of mechanical transfer functions.

2.1 Comparison to Mechanical Components

Each mechanical component will have an electrical analogue in such a way that the form of the
Laplace transform is similar. This will not be exact due to a difference in reference response. The
analogues are:

Mechanical component Electrical component

Mass, M Inductor, L
Viscous Damper, C Resistor, R
Spring, K Capacitor, C ‡
Applied Force, F Electromotive force, emf or V
Velocity, V Mesh Current, I
‡ The list of variables here uses C twice. If so opted, viscous damping can be set as f
v
similar to the discussion in the earlier section. If the usual is adopted, it is recommended
to properly name variables such as putting subscripts and/or making a list of variables
to follow.

Figure 6 shows the different mathematical representation for the corresponding electrical compo-
nents. It can be observed that the Laplace transform does not really correspond to the Laplace
transform of the supposed mechanical component analogue from Table 2.1. This is mainly because
of of the Laplace transform that is based on the current and voltage.

The reference response in mechanical systems is displacement x(t) and from the definition of ve-
locity, we know that v(t) is the dx/dt or the change in displacement through time. Current follows
the same patter with velocity as it is defined as the flow of charges at a specific point within a
space, or along a wire for our purposes.

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 Figure 6: Electrical System components (simple)

It is then more appropriate to compare displacement x(t) to the charge q(t) although it should be
noted that the two are not exactly the same in terms of reference frames. In our discussion, velocity
and displacement follows a specific particle while charge and current follows a control volume or
space.

And so in a simple RLC circuit:

Z
di 1
L + Ri + idt = v(t) (15)
dt C

Figure 7: Simple RLC circuit

I(s)
And the resulting transfer function relating a voltage source and the output current, V (s) :
 
1
Ls + R + I(s) = E(s) (16)
C
I(s) 1
= 1 (17)
E(s) Ls + R + C

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2.2 Mesh Analysis

2.2.1 Common voltage source

The circuit in Figure 8 can be represented using mesh analysis„

Figure 8: RLC circuit with two meshes using a common voltage source.

For the first mesh with i1 (t):

    
1 1 1
L1 s + (R1 + R2 ) + + I1 (s) − R2 + I2 (s) = V (s) (18)
C1 s C2 s C2 s

For the second mesh with i2 (t):

    
1 1 1
− R2 + I1 (s) + L2 s + (R2 + R3 ) + + I1 (s) = 0 (19)
C2 s C2 s C3 s

This problem is akin to a 2DOF mechanical system and should be solved via matrices.

2.2.2 Common current source

The circuit in Figure 9 may look similar to the circuit in Figure 8 in terms of having multiple
meshes. However, it should be noted that a current source is used here instead of a voltage
source. Thus, the solution will be different and for this case, simpler.

Figure 9: RLC circuit with parallel components using a common current source
„
The symbols used in the accompanying video are different not because they are defined differently. The solution
in the accompanying video solves the circuit in mechanical component analogues. Thus, M, fv , K, v, and f should
not be confused with any electrical variable such as v(t) = velocity 6= voltage.

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For a parallel circuit, the voltage drop should be equal and i1 (t) + i2 (t) + i3 (t) = i(t). Defining the
current flowing through each component* :

I1 (s) = CsV (s) (20)

1
I2 (s) = V (s) (21)
R
1
I3 (s) = V (s) (22)
Ls

Now, solving for I(s):  

1 1
I(s) = Cs + + V (s) (23)
R Ls

Since a current source is used, the transfer function should have an input involving I(s) and should
be represented in terms of VI(s)
(s)
.
V(s) 1
= 1 1 (24)
I(s) Cs + R + Ls

3 Fluid and Thermal Transfer Function (simple)

Consider the system shown in Figure 10 which can be likened to a simple shower heater. Cold fluid
goes in and is heated before flowing out of the tank, and into your shower head.

Figure 10: Representation for heat exchanger for a water tank.

We first define two terms that will characterise the heat exchange in the system:

a) Thermal Capacitance, C: this is usually defined as the heat needed to raise the temperature
of a body by one degree
b) Thermal Resistance, R: this is usually defined as the capability of an object to resist heat
flow.
*
Note that these are solving for I(s). The discussion in the previous section isl solving for V (s) so would involve
reciprocals of Equations 20-22.

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In a system that is fully characterised using thermal capacitance where it is assumed that the
thermal resistance is negligible i.e. if heat will be transferred without loss if conditions for heat
transfer (∆T is non-zero, etc.) are met.
dT
q(t) = C (25)
dt

Conversely a system that is fully characterised using thermal resistance, i.e. heat is not trapped
nor stored in bodies when heat transfer occurs (ideal). Additionally, the heat transfer between two
bodies at T1 and T2 (given as ∆T ) is not dependent on time since it is assumed that the bodies
cannot store heat and thus, their temperatures remain constant.
1
q12 = dT (26)
R

It is to be noted that neither actually happens in reality. Thus the overall equation should be
written as:
 
C 1
q= + dT, or (27)
dt R
dT 1
q=C + dT (28)
dt R

Getting the Laplace transform:

 
1
Q(s) = Cs + T (s) (29)
R
T (s) 1
= (30)
Q(s) Cs + R1
T(s) 1
= (31)
Q(s) RCs + 1

Equation 31 is the general transfer function for any thermal system. It is not specific for the system
showed in Figure 10 but can be shown that it applies.

a) The thermal capacitance of water flowing in and out of the tank is constant only if the mass
flow is held constant since C is mass-based with C = mc where c is specific heat. Assuming
constant mass flow, which eliminates the need to control for mass flow, we can maintain
control of the temperature solely through heat input.
b) The thermal resistance of the system is dependent on the temperature difference of the heating
element and the water inside the tank. We can assume that the temperature distribution of
the water inside the tank is homogenous and that the temperature of the water going in the
tank is constant, we should be able to control the temperature of the water at the outlet
solely through the heat input. The difference in temperature can be written as:
∆T = Toutlet − Tinlet (32)
Take note that this assumes that the temperature does not vary through time and ∆T does
not vary through time unless there is a change in heat input.

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 c) The combination of (a) and (b) takes into account that a real system such the shower heating
system in Figure 10 has both capacitance and resistance.

Equation 30 is very similar to Equation 24 where resistance and capacitance is treated as

parallel nodes. This is the same as how you would solve for a heat exchange system characterised
by both capacitance and resistance.

4 Electromechanical Transfer Functions

Figure 11: System with motor as source of torque.

It was discussed in Section 1.2 that the forcing variable in a rotational system is torque, T (s).
This torque is usually supplied by a power-generating rotor (power-generation) or a motor (power-
consumption). The dynamics of a power-generating rotor is much more complex and depends on
the type of resource used for power generation. The dynamics of a motor is much simpler for typical
armature-controlled DC motor.

The transfer function for a rotational system was already defined in Section 1.2. However, the
torque is the output of the motor and thus, the system in Figure 11 should be further analysed.
Note that there is no rotational spring in the model of the motor and this is due to the value of
Krotational is usually negligible.

Figure 12: Representation of a motor.

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The system in Figure 12 is the typical model for an armature-controlled DC motor¶ . The approach
is similar to the discussion Section 2.1. There are three components:

a) Armature resistance, Ra
b) Armature iductance, La
c) Rotor

The voltage across (a) and (b) were already discussed as V (s) = I(s)Ra and V (s) = La sI(s). The
voltage in the rotor can also be computed using a constant defined as Kb which is the back-emf
constant.

As the rotor rotates with ω or dθdtm , it produces its own voltage that counteracts the voltage applied
to the circuit. This is due to the constantly changing magnetic fields as the rotor rotates. Note
that this is still positive as any back-emf should be compensated by an increase in input voltage
to maintain a set ω. Thus:
dθm
Vb = Kb (33)
dt
Vb (s) = Kb sθm (s) (34)
Va (s) = Ra I(s) + sLa I(s) + Kb sθm (s) (35)

The above equation still has too many parameters (3) to define a transfer function with. We then
define another constant, Kt which is the torque constant of the rotor and relates the current and
torque of any armature-controlled DC motor.
Tm (s)
Ia (s) = (36)
Kt

Equation 35 then becomes:

(Ra + sLa )Tm (s)
Va (s) = + Kb sθm (s) (37)
Kt

Using the transfer function of rotational system given by Equation 4, we can further express Tm (s)
in terms of θm (s):
(Ra + sLa )(Jm s + Dm )θm (s)
Va (s) = + Kb sθm (s) (38)
Kt

θm (s)
Rearranging to get the transfer function Va (s) :

θm (s) 1
=   (39)
Va (s) s R a
(J s + D ) + K
Kt m m b
Kt
θm (s) Ra Jm
= 1 Kt Kb
(40)
Va (s) s(s + Jm (Dm + Ra ))
¶
An armature-controlled DC motor uses permanent magnets and relies solely on the current the runs through
the armature circuit.

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The final transfer function only gives you the angular displacement which is usually enough. How-
ever, if you want to get the resulting angular speed when you apply a voltage, you can simply
multiply s to both sides of the equation which results in:

sθm (s) s
RK t
a Jm
= 1 Kt Kb
(41)
Va (s) s(s

+ Jm (Dm + Ra ))
Kt
ωm (s) Ra Jm
= 1 Kt Kb
(42)
Va (s) (s + Jm (Dm + Ra ))

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