UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

Potentiometers:

Definition

A potentiometer is an electromechanical position sensor that works as a variable resistor to

measure linear or angular displacement by varying resistance.

Construction

● Resistive Element – Made of carbon, conductive plastic, or wire-wound metal.

● Wiper/Slider – A movable contact that slides along the resistive track.
● Terminals –
o A and B: Ends of the resistive element.
o W: Wiper terminal.

Working Principle

● Based on voltage division:

When a constant voltage is applied across the resistive element, the wiper position
determines the output voltage:

Vout=Vin×RwiperRtotalV_{out} = V_{in} \times \frac{R_{wiper}}{R_{total}}Vout=Vin

×RtotalRwiper

● Moving the wiper changes the ratio of resistance, thus changing output voltage
proportionally.

Types

1. Linear Potentiometer – Measures linear displacement; wiper moves in a straight line.

2. Rotary Potentiometer – Measures angular displacement; wiper rotates over a circular
track.
3. Digital Potentiometer – Controlled electronically without physical movement.
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Advantages

● Simple construction.
● Low cost.
● Direct voltage output proportional to displacement.

Limitations

● Mechanical wear due to friction.

● Limited resolution compared to optical sensors.
● Affected by temperature and dust.

Applications

● Volume control in audio devices.

● Joystick position sensing.
● Throttle position sensor in vehicles.
● Robotics arm joint angle measurement.

Resolver :
A. Definition
A resolver is a type of rotary position sensor that works on the principle of a rotary
transformer to measure angular position and speed.

B. Construction
● Stator – Fixed part with two windings placed 90° apart (Sine and Cosine windings).

● Rotor – Rotating part with a primary excitation winding.

● Slip Rings/Brushless Coupling – Transfers excitation signal to the rotor.

C. Working Principle
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● The rotor winding is excited with an AC reference signal.

● The rotating magnetic field induces voltages in the stator windings:

o Sine Winding Output:

Vsin=Vref×sin⁡(θ)V_{sin} = V_{ref} \times \sin(\theta)Vsin=Vref×sin(θ)

o Cosine Winding Output:

Vcos=Vref×cos⁡(θ)V_{cos} = V_{ref} \times \cos(\theta)Vcos=Vref×cos(θ)

● The angle θ\thetaθ is calculated using:

θ=tan⁡−1(VsinVcos)\theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{V_{sin}}{V_{cos}}\right)θ=tan−1(VcosVsin)

● The magnitude and phase of these signals give position and direction.

D. Advantages
● High accuracy.

● No contact wear (especially brushless resolvers).

● Operates in harsh environments (dust, vibration, temperature extremes).

E. Limitations
● More expensive than potentiometers.

● Requires signal processing to extract angle.

● Needs AC excitation source.

F. Applications
● Aerospace navigation systems.

● CNC machine tool positioning.

● Electric motor feedback (BLDC, servo motors).

 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Radar antenna position control.

● Military targeting systems.

Encoders-
An encoder is an electromechanical device that converts motion (linear or rotary) into electrical
signals, often for position, speed, or direction measurement.
Two main types:

● Incremental Encoder – Produces pulses to indicate change in position.

● Absolute Encoder – Produces a unique code for each position.

Optical Encoder-
A. Principle
Uses a light source (LED) and a photo-detector with a patterned disk (transparent & opaque
segments) to detect movement.
B. Working
● A rotating disk with slots is mounted on the shaft.

● As the disk rotates, light passes or is blocked, producing pulses.

● Number of pulses per revolution determines resolution.

C. Advantages
● High resolution.

● Non-contact operation.

● Reliable at high speeds.

D. Disadvantages
● Sensitive to dust, dirt, and vibration.

E. Applications
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● CNC machines.

● Robotics joint control.

● Printers.

Magnetic Encoder -
A. Principle
Uses a magnetized wheel and a magnetic sensor (Hall effect or magnetoresistive sensor) to
detect position.
B. Working
● A rotating magnet or magnetic strip is read by a stationary sensor.

● Magnetic field changes are converted into pulses or digital codes.

C. Advantages
● Works in dirty, dusty environments.

● More robust than optical encoders.

D. Disadvantages
● Lower resolution than high-end optical encoders.

E. Applications
● Automotive speedometers.

● Industrial motor feedback.

● Harsh environment machinery.

Inductive Encoder -
A. Principle
Works like a transformer — uses electromagnetic induction to detect movement.
B. Working
● A metal target modifies inductance between coils.
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Variation in inductance is converted into position information.

C. Advantages
● Immune to dust, oil, and vibration.

● Durable and long-lasting.

D. Disadvantages
● More complex signal processing.

E. Applications
● Heavy machinery.

● Railways and industrial automation.

Capacitive Encoder -
A. Principle
Detects position using changes in capacitance between conductive patterns on a disk and
stationary plates.
B. Working
● The rotating disk changes the overlapping area between plates.

● Capacitance change is detected and converted to position data.

C. Advantages
● Low cost.

● Immune to magnetic interference.

D. Disadvantages
● Sensitive to dust, moisture, and humidity.

E. Applications
● Human-machine interface controls.

● Consumer electronics.
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) -

A. Principle
An electromechanical transducer that converts linear displacement into an electrical signal via
mutual induction.
B. Construction
● Primary coil in the center.

● Two secondary coils on either side.

● Movable ferromagnetic core linked to the object.

C. Working
● Primary coil excited with AC.

● Core movement changes coupling between primary and secondary coils.

● Differential voltage output indicates displacement and direction.

D. Advantages
● High accuracy and resolution.

● Frictionless operation.

E. Disadvantages
● Requires AC excitation.

● Sensitive to temperature changes.

F. Applications
● Aircraft control surfaces.

● Industrial measurement.

● Robotics.

RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer) -

A. Principle
Same as LVDT, but measures angular displacement instead of linear.
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

B. Construction
● Similar coil arrangement, but with a rotary ferromagnetic core.

C. Applications
● Servo motor feedback.

● Turbine vane position sensing.

Synchro -
A. Principle
An electromechanical device that transmits rotary position information using three-phase AC
signals.
B. Construction
● Stator with three windings at 120° spacing.

● Rotor with excitation winding.

C. Working
● Rotor excited with AC.

● Output voltages in stator vary with rotor angle.

● Used in pairs — transmitter and receiver synchros.

D. Applications
● Ship navigation.

● Radar antenna positioning.

● Aerospace control.

Microsyn -
A. Principle
Miniature version of a synchro, used where small size and low power are required.
B. Features
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Lower torque capability.

● Operates on similar principle to synchro.

● Compact and lightweight.

C. Applications
● Aircraft instrumentation.

● Spacecraft controls.

Accelerometer –

An accelerometer measures acceleration — the rate of change of velocity. It can detect both
static acceleration (gravity) and dynamic acceleration (movement, vibration).
Working principle:

● Based on MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) technology.

● Consists of a tiny proof mass suspended by springs.

● When the device accelerates, the mass moves, changing capacitance or resistance, which
is measured electronically.
Applications:

● Smartphones (screen rotation detection)

● Vibration monitoring in machines

● Airbag deployment systems in cars

● Step counters (pedometers)

GPS (Global Positioning System)

A satellite-based navigation system providing location and time information anywhere on Earth.
Working principle:

● GPS receivers detect signals from at least 4 satellites.

 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Using time-of-flight measurement (how long it takes signals to arrive), the receiver
calculates its 3D position (latitude, longitude, altitude).
Accuracy:

● Civilian: ~5–10 m

● With DGPS (Differential GPS): <1 m

Applications:

● Vehicle navigation

● Asset tracking

● Outdoor sports

● Mapping & surveying

Bluetooth
A short-range wireless communication technology operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
Working principle:

● Uses frequency hopping spread spectrum to reduce interference.

● Typical range: 10–100 meters depending on class.

Applications in sensing:

● Wireless data transfer from sensors to smartphones or computers

● Fitness wearables

● Wireless sensor networks (IoT)

Range Sensors
Used to measure the distance between the sensor and an object.

a) RF Beacons
● Use Radio Frequency signals to measure distance or position.
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Range estimation can be done using RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indicator) or
time-of-flight methods.
Applications:

● Indoor positioning systems (IPS) in warehouses, malls

● Asset tracking

b) Ultrasonic Ranging
● Uses sound waves above human hearing (>20 kHz).

● Sensor emits a sound pulse; measures the echo return time to calculate distance.

Formula:
Distance=Speed of Sound×Time2\text{Distance} = \frac{\text{Speed of Sound} \times \text{Time}}
{2}Distance=2Speed of Sound×Time

Applications:

● Parking sensors in cars

● Robot obstacle detection

● Liquid level measurement

c) Reflective Beacons
● Emit infrared or laser light that reflects off objects.

● Distance is estimated from the reflected signal’s intensity or time delay.

Applications:

● Short-range object detection in robotics

● Safety light curtains in automation

d) Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR – Light Detection and Ranging)

● Uses laser light pulses and measures the time-of-flight for each pulse.
 UNIT 2: MOTION, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS Motion Sensors

● Can scan a large area to create a 3D map.

Advantages:

● High accuracy (cm level)

● Works over long distances (up to hundreds of meters)

Applications:

● Autonomous vehicles (self-driving cars)

● Mapping and surveying

● Drone navigation