NAUTICAL ASPECTS OF PORT PLANNING

General Considerations in Port Development

Ports are critical hubs in global transport, and their development must
carefully consider nautical aspects to ensure safe and efficient vessel navigation.
The design and operation of ports must address key concerns such as vessel
movement in approach areas, maneuvering within the port, and mooring
operations. When selecting a port site, safety and economic efficiency are
paramount, and planning must account for the dominant presence of large ships,
which significantly influence port infrastructure.

For deep-water ports, accommodating large vessels like Very Large Crude
Carriers (VLCCs) presents challenges due to their slower maneuvering response
times compared to smaller vessels. This means that the actual navigational track of
these vessels can deviate significantly from the ideal path, requiring adjustments to
operational criteria for port approaches and other navigation areas. Infrastructure
for these ports tends to be more extensive to accommodate such large vessels
safely.

Ports must continually adapt to evolving sea transport demands, driven by

technological advancements and changes in shipping practices. Failing to adapt can
lead to congestion, accidents, and delays, negatively impacting regional and
national economies. Retrofitting existing ports can be costly, so when developing
new ports, it's crucial to evaluate the expected types, sizes, and volumes of vessels
both now and in the future. Designing ports with flexibility to accommodate new
vessels and changing conditions can prevent costly redesigns later.

Vessel transit to and from the port generally involves three phases:
preparation, negotiating port approaches, and mooring. Each phase requires careful
management of speed and course to meet safety criteria, with particular attention
paid to the challenges posed by large vessels. As these ships have greater mass
inertia, they require larger maneuvering spaces than smaller ships. Tugboats are
often necessary for safe docking, especially in confined spaces.
 The success of these maneuvers is also affected by human factors, such as
navigator experience and reaction times, which can vary significantly. To ensure
safe transit, ports must design their navigation areas to account for these human
variations. Additionally, the integration of advanced electronic navigation systems
and real-time environmental data (such as tides, currents, and wind conditions) is
essential for safe and efficient vessel movement within ports.

Ship Maneuverability

Since the 1960s, research has significantly advanced our understanding of

ship maneuverability, particularly with the rise of larger tankers and bulk carriers.
This research has impacted the design of hulls, control systems, training, and
navigational infrastructure.

A ship’s maneuverability is determined by its reaction to rudder and

propeller changes, turning ability, and stopping distance. These characteristics are
influenced by the ship’s hull, mass, rudder system, and propulsion system. Key
factors include the L/B ratio (length to beam), block coefficient, and B/d ratio
(beam to draft). A small B/d ratio with a large block coefficient results in slower
response times but better turning once the ship starts rotating. These factors are
crucial for tankers navigating in confined channels, but the operator’s skill in using
these characteristics is equally important.

In confined waters, a simultaneous rudder and propeller action can improve

response time, especially at lower speeds. Course stability—the ability to resist
external disturbances—tends to be better in shallow waters. Turning diameters at
service speed vary, with large tankers and bulk carriers requiring 3-4 ship lengths
to turn, while container ships, particularly those designed for high speeds, need 6-8
lengths.

At low speeds, using twin propellers or bow thrusters can improve turning
ability, but these are not always effective. For example, some container ships with
twin propellers have ineffective turning capability due to their close spacing. Bow
thrusters are most useful for berthing but lose efficiency at higher speeds (above 4-
5 knots).
 Stopping distance is heavily influenced by the ratio of astern power to vessel
mass. Large vessels may require 15-20 ship lengths to stop, while smaller ships
like container vessels need 6-8 lengths. During a crash stop, ships lose course
control due to disturbed flow around the rudder but can regain some control with
brief ahead thrusts, though this increases the stopping distance.

Effects of Environmental Conditions

Environmental conditions significantly impact ship maneuverability, with

shallow water, waves and swell, and currents/winds being the main factors.

Shallow water effects become noticeable when the depth is less than 4 times
the ship’s draught, especially around 1.5 times the draught. These effects increase
resistance, cause squat, and reduce rudder efficiency. Ships become more stable in
course, but turning radii increase, and response to rudder input slows. Stopping
distances are reduced, though not drastically.

Waves and swell can cause course deviations and increase resistance,
sometimes reducing rudder response. The impact varies with specific conditions
and is particularly important in constrained waterways, influencing channel depth
design.

Currents and winds cause drift motions, forcing vessels to steer at an angle
to maintain course. This is more noticeable in shallow waters, where decreasing
keel clearance amplifies drift angle, affecting navigation in port transit.

Overall, water depth, particularly in shallow waters, alters maneuverability

by increasing resistance and reducing rudder effectiveness, which needs careful
consideration in port planning.

Consequences for Port Planning

The depth of approach channels is crucial for safe ship navigation. The
required keel clearance is often estimated based on environmental conditions.
According to PIANC guidelines, for open sea areas exposed to strong swell and
high vessel speeds, the clearance should be 20% of the vessel’s maximum draught.
In areas with strong swell, but lower speeds, it should be 15%, while less exposed
channels may only require 10%. These percentages can vary by location and vessel
type. For larger ships, these clearances are typically adequate, but for conventional
vessels or LNG carriers, a greater clearance might be needed.

The width of the channel is influenced by environmental factors such as

cross currents, waves, wind, and visibility, as well as the vessel’s ability to steer. In
confined waters, ships must often steer at an angle (drift angle) to maintain a
straight course. This drift angle impacts the minimum channel width. For one-way
traffic, the channel width is usually around 5-7 times the beam, while for two-way
traffic, an additional 3-5 times the beam is required. In areas with cross currents,
wide channels are essential to avoid course deviation and ensure safe passage.

The layout of an approach channel should minimize sharp curves,

particularly near the port entrance, to facilitate safe navigation. Ideally, curves
should have a radius of at least 10 times the vessel’s length (L), and the distance
between curves should be at least 10L. In some cases, curves with a radius of 5L
may be acceptable. It is also important to avoid high cross currents, especially near
curves and the harbor entrance. Anchorages should be provided along the
channel’s length, with the last one located close to the port entrance for emergency
situations.

For large ships, particularly those over 50,000 dwt, the situation is more
complex due to long stopping distances and reduced course control during
stopping. These ships cannot stop on their own and must maintain a minimum
speed of 3-4 knots to maintain rudder control. Tugboats are typically required for
docking, and the inner channel should be designed to accommodate these vessels
with a length of 3-4 km. The stopping length can be reduced by limiting cross
currents, which allows for safer entry and docking.

At the end of the inner channel, a turning basin is needed for ships to
maneuver into position. The diameter of this basin should be at least 2 times the
ship’s length (L) for large vessels. In rare cases where tugboats are not available, a
diameter of 3L may be necessary. If there are strong currents, particularly in river
ports, the turning basin should be lengthened to compensate for the vessel’s drift.
The layout and dimensions of the turning basin are critical to ensure safe and
efficient port operations, especially for larger vessels that require assistance to
maneuver.

CIVIL ENGINEERING ASPECTS

Field Investigations

Site investigation is crucial for project success. This involves studying the
physical features of the area, including hydrography, meteorology, oceanography,
coastal hydraulics, and subsoil conditions, both on land and under the sea.
Hydraulic modeling techniques may be employed to predict changes caused by
port construction.

Reliable bathymetric data is vital. While existing charts may suffice for
preliminary engineering, detailed bathymetric surveys are often necessary. The
survey should cover a large area to account for alternative approaches and port
locations. High-resolution echo sounders and other methods like lead-line
soundings are used for the survey. The area for the survey must be well defined,
and detailed survey plans are created as the project progresses.

Weather records are typically available for most regions and are essential for
designing port infrastructure. Local anemometers, rain gauges, and barographs are
set up to monitor the weather throughout the construction and operation stages.

Oceanography studies the sea’s behavior, focusing on waves, currents, and

tides. Accurate records of wind, waves, and currents, especially local ones, are
vital for designing a port. Wave heights and tide patterns are measured directly,
and data from local currents is gathered to guide engineering decisions.

Waves, currents, and littoral drift are studied during a coastal hydraulic
survey. Waves modify as they approach the shore, and their impact on the sea bed
must be understood for effective port planning. Coastal currents are measured to
assess their strength and direction at different tidal stages. Littoral drift, the
transport of beach material by waves and currents, is studied to prevent coastal
erosion or deposition in unintended areas.

Geotechnical surveys investigate subsoil conditions, which are crucial for

port construction. Techniques like boreholes, rotary drilling, and geophysical
exploration are used to assess soil properties. The cost of these investigations is
relatively small compared to the value of the works constructed. The
investigation’s exact form depends on the site and project specifics.

Physical and mathematical hydraulic modeling techniques play an essential

role in port planning and design. These models help predict changes caused by
development works and optimize construction costs. In river or estuarial ports, the
impact of new facilities on tidal velocities, sediment movement, and siltation is
studied using these models. Coastal movements, including changes in wave action
caused by dredging or the deposition of dredged material, can also be studied.
Although full model tests require substantial time and effort, some projects may
defer technically difficult decisions to later stages, allowing for more thorough
investigation during project implementation.

Water area requirements

Water area requirements for harbor planning are pivotal in ensuring the safe
and efficient operation of ports, particularly as ship sizes continue to grow. One of
the key factors in water area planning is the determination of the ship's draught,
which is the vertical distance between the waterline and the bottom of the hull. A
useful rule of thumb for planners estimates the full-load draught of modern ships
based on their tonnage. For instance, a 100,000-ton hulk carrier typically draws
about 15 meters. This formula is generally accurate for ships ranging from 10,000
to 500,000 DWT but may overestimate the draught for smaller vessels or
underestimate it for certain container ships.

Approach channels, which are the designated paths that ships follow when
entering a harbor, must be carefully designed to allow for safe passage. These
channels may either be artificially created or improved from natural waterways and
often require regular dredging to maintain sufficient depth, particularly as vessels
increase in size. A thorough understanding of site-specific conditions, such as
currents, wave action, and sediment transport, is crucial. A river's suspended
sediment load, for instance, may impact channel stability, leading to rapid infilling,
which could obstruct navigation. Therefore, historical data on currents, wave
patterns, and sedimentation are important considerations during the planning
phase.

In the design of approach channels, planners must strike a balance between

maintaining sufficient depth for deep-draught vessels at various stages of the tidal
cycle and controlling the costs of dredging. The depth of the channel must be
adequate for the largest ship expected to use the port at all times. Special
consideration must be given to the effects of squat (the lowering of a vessel's hull
as it moves through shallow water), tidal influence, and the type of seabed, which
may include soft silt or rocky conditions that could affect the required under-keel
clearance. For instance, vessels with a draught of 9 meters may require a channel
depth of 10.5 meters in an approach channel, taking into account squat and wave
action.

The width of the channel is another critical factor, as it must be wide enough
to accommodate vessels traveling in both directions, especially in areas of high
traffic. A typical channel width for two-lane traffic might be twice the vessel's
beam, plus additional space for clearance between vessels and the channel's banks.
In areas with sharp bends, the channel must be wider to account for the vessel’s
tendency to drift during turns. The minimum radius of curvature for bends is
typically 1,500 meters for deep-sea vessels.

In addition to approach channels, lay-bys and turning areas must be provided

to facilitate the maneuvering of ships. Lay-bys serve as anchorage areas for vessels
waiting to berth or undergoing inspections. Turning areas are particularly
important in confined spaces where ships may need to rotate, requiring a minimum
area of a circle with a diameter four times the ship’s length if no tug assistance is
available. Tug assistance can reduce this space requirement by half.

Another important consideration is whether the harbor should be influenced

by tidal fluctuations or whether a locked basin (wet dock) is necessary. Locked
basins maintain a constant water level and provide stability for loading and
unloading operations, particularly when the tidal range is significant. While
providing a locked basin offers certain operational benefits, such as reducing tidal
constraints, it comes at a high capital cost and requires specialized infrastructure
like ship locks. The decision to build a locked basin must therefore be made after
considering the operational needs, traffic patterns, and economic feasibility of the
harbor.

Finally, navigational aids such as buoys, beacons, and radar systems play a
crucial role in guiding vessels safely through channels, especially during low
visibility conditions. The alignment of the channel should take into account factors
such as prevailing weather, current directions, and the proximity of natural or
artificial obstacles. Close consultation with national maritime authorities and the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) ensures that the proper systems are
implemented to safeguard vessels as they approach and navigate harbors.

Dredging

Dredging, the process of removing soil from the seabed or riverbed to

increase water depth for ships to pass safely, has a long history. As ship sizes
continue to increase, dredging has become crucial in maintaining and expanding
existing ports. Recent technological advancements have significantly enhanced
dredging capabilities, making it possible to undertake larger-scale operations more
efficiently. Different types of dredgers are employed, each suited for specific tasks,
depending on material types and site conditions.

Dredging is essentially an excavation operation. Choosing the appropriate

dredging equipment is crucial to ensuring efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The
selection process depends on factors such as the material to be dredged, dredging
depth, and the logistics involved, encompassing both capital and maintenance
dredging needs. Proper planning and equipment selection are vital for maximizing
operational efficiency and minimizing costs.
Breakwaters

Breakwaters protect harbors by deflecting, reflecting, or absorbing wave

energy. The design requires data on storm wave height, period, and frequency. A
design wave, typically the maximum wave expected in a 50-100 year storm, is
chosen based on oceanographic and meteorological data. Geotechnical
investigations of the seabed’s strength are also essential to ensure stability.

Breakwaters can be offshore islands or shore-attached arms with vertical or

sloping faces. Traditional vertical breakwaters used masonry, while modern
designs use reinforced concrete caissons. Rubble mound breakwaters have a core
of smaller rock and larger armor stones, or artificial concrete armor when rock is
scarce.

The design begins with estimating breakwater layouts to intercept wave

energy. Model testing verifies effectiveness in wave reduction. The design must
balance hydraulic efficiency with ship access, and structural stability against
overturning and sliding is ensured through reinforcement measures.

Rubble mound breakwaters are built by placing material progressively from

the shore, while caisson breakwaters are pre-constructed and floated into place.
Both methods require careful timing to minimize wave activity during
construction.

The type of breakwater depends on material availability, labor, and

equipment. Rubble mound breakwaters require abundant rock and large equipment,
while caisson breakwaters use less material but demand skilled labor and
equipment for placement.

Quays and jetties

Quays and jetties are vital marine structures designed for the loading and
unloading of ships, though they vary significantly in their construction and
function. Quays and wharves are heavy-duty structures capable of supporting large
vehicles and cranes, either built along the shoreline (marginal) or projecting from it
(piers). Jetties, on the other hand, are lighter structures mainly suited for bulk
cargoes and are used when the required water depth is only available offshore.
They are often used for dry or liquid bulk cargoes, where specialized loading
equipment is located at the jetty head, and the cargo is moved ashore by pipelines
or conveyors. The choice between quays, wharves, and jetties depends on the
nature of the cargo, the depth of the water, and other operational requirements.

Different engineering approaches are used for constructing quay walls, with
options like block-work retaining walls, anchored bulkhead walls, and open-piled
marginal quays. Each method is suited to specific soil and site conditions, and the
materials used may vary depending on local availability and economic factors. For
example, using local materials such as bamboo piles or wooden piles can offer cost
savings, especially in regions where imported materials are expensive. Open-piled
marginal quays are commonly used due to their flexibility and ability to withstand
heavy loads. For jetties, which often serve specialized vessels such as bulk carriers
or tankers, dolphins are frequently used to moor ships, separating the ship's
berthing from the cargo-handling platform. The type of berth, including special
types like single-point mooring or floating buoys, is often selected based on the
specific needs of the cargo and the site conditions, balancing the advantages and
challenges of each solution.

Engineering cost estimates

During the early stages of port development, engineering studies aim to

identify potential solutions and provide rough estimates for capital and
maintenance costs. These initial estimates often include a tolerance of +20%, as
uncertainties in traffic and shipping forecasts make precision difficult. As the
project advances, estimates become more accurate through detailed design work.
Engineers should ensure that estimates for alternative solutions are easily
comparable, especially if unforeseen options, such as port expansions, arise. While
current costs are typically used, inflation rates may need to be assessed. The
engineer must also consider whether a local or foreign contractor will be used, as
this affects the cost structure and foreign currency requirements. Additionally, the
phasing of construction impacts costs, and it may be more cost-effective to build
multiple berths at once to reduce mobilization costs. Cost estimates should be
divided into direct costs for each element and mobilization costs, allowing for
flexible economic comparisons.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY ASPECTS

Environmental Aspects of Port Development

Port development can significantly alter the physical, chemical, biological,

and social characteristics of the surrounding environment. This can have
immediate or long-term effects on living beings, often leading to environmental
impacts such as a reduction in fishing stocks, contamination of breeding grounds,
and deterioration of water quality. For example, the destruction of spawning
grounds can affect marine life, while poor water quality can hinder recreational
activities like swimming and boating. The construction of ports often leads to the
destruction of vegetation and the creation of waste, which must be carefully
managed to avoid environmental harm.

Additionally, ports may be located near industrial areas that contribute to air
pollution, noise, and other environmental issues. Air pollutants like sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxide can damage vegetation and buildings, while noise pollution can
impact both people and wildlife. To address these concerns, comprehensive
environmental surveys are required during the planning stages. These surveys
should assess the site’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, including
the condition of water, marine life, and land-based flora and fauna. Special
attention is needed for the impact of dredging activities, as they can alter the
habitat of marine species and increase turbidity in the water. The disposal of
dredged material is regulated to minimize damage to the environment.

Moreover, operational hazards such as spills of dangerous substances,

including oil and toxic chemicals, pose serious risks to the marine environment.
Ports must be equipped with emergency response systems to handle such incidents,
and the environmental risks associated with maritime accidents must be evaluated.
International conventions, like the 1954 International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil and the 1973 Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships, provide guidelines for pollution prevention
measures in ports.

The planning of port industrial areas must also consider pollution

prevention. This includes managing liquid and gaseous discharges from industries
and ensuring the proper treatment of industrial effluents. A comprehensive
monitoring system should be in place to control atmospheric pollution, and
designated areas for waste disposal should be incorporated into the port master
plan. Additionally, the potential effects of thermal pollution from cooling water
discharge should be considered to prevent harmful changes to local marine
ecosystems.

Finally, regulations should be established to ensure that industrial companies

adhere to environmental standards for effluents, waste disposal, and landscape
management, contributing to a sustainable and aesthetically pleasing port
environment.

Dangerous goods

Planning for the reception and handling of dangerous goods in ports requires
thorough risk assessment, preventive measures, and emergency provisions to
ensure safety. Dangerous goods, classified based on their hazardous characteristics
(e.g., toxicity, fire, explosion), are regulated under frameworks like the IMO’s
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code. Ports must evaluate risks
related to various dangerous goods, considering factors such as the proximity to
populated areas, environmental impact, and the specific hazards of the goods.
Risks include the handling of toxic gases, flammable liquids, and bulk hazardous
substances like crude oil and liquefied gases, which require specialized storage and
equipment.

Preventive measures involve establishing safety distances between

dangerous goods handling and other facilities, adhering to international safety
codes, and designing the port to minimize risks, such as locating bulk terminals in
isolated areas. The design must also include adequate navigational aids and traffic
control to prevent accidents, particularly for large vessels carrying dangerous
substances. Bulk handling requires stricter safety measures due to the lack of
packaging protection. For general cargo, dangerous goods can be stored in
designated areas, while bulk dangerous goods must be stored in specially designed
tanks or embankments to prevent cross-contamination and facilitate emergency
response.

Emergency preparedness involves providing onshore infrastructure like fire-

fighting equipment and trained personnel for immediate action. The port must also
have systems for monitoring and managing accidents, including life-saving
equipment and pollution control measures like booms and dispersants.
Additionally, comprehensive safety regulations and clear declarations of all
dangerous goods entering the port help ensure rapid response during incidents.
While considering environmental and safety aspects can raise development costs,
they are essential for preventing accidents, protecting public health, and ensuring
the efficient, safe handling of dangerous goods in port operations.