CHAPTER TWO

1. Units and mathematics

Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily
chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical measure)
accompanied by a unit.

Although the number of physical quantities appears to be very large, we need only a
limited number of units for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are
interrelated with one another. The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units. The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the derived quantities are called
derived units. A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.

1.1. Basic SI units

There is international agreement that the units used for physical quantities in science and
technology should be those of the International System of Units, or SI. The Physical
Chemistry Division of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, or IUPAC,
produces a manual of recommended symbols and terminology for physical quantities and
units based on the SI.
The SI is built on the seven base units. These base units are independent physical
quantities that are sufficient to describe all other physical quantities.

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Table 2.1 SI base units
Physical quantity SI unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogra kg
m

Time second s

Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature

Amount of substance mole mol

Electric current ampere A

Luminous intensity candela cd

1.2. Derived units

The physical quantities which are derived from seven basic unit are called derived
quantities and are regarded as having dimensions derived algebraically from the seven
base quantities by multiplication and division.

Table 2.2 SI derived units

Physical quantity Unit Symbol Definition of unit

force Newton N 1 N=1 kgm s

−1

Pressure Pascal Pa −2
1 Pa=N m =kg m s
−1 −2

Celsius temperature Degree ℃ t /℃=T / K−273.15

Celsius

Energy Joule J 1 J =1 Nm=1 kg m s

2 −2

Power Watt W −1
1 W =1 J s =kg m s
2 −3

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 Frequency Hertz Hz 1 Hz=1 s
−1

Electric charge Coulomb C 1 C=1 As

Electric potential Volt V −1

1 V =J C =1 kg m A s
2 −1 −3

Electric resistance Ohm Ω −1

1 Ω=V A =1 kg m A s
2 −2 −3

1.3. Exponents and Logarithms

In mathematics, every operation has another operation that allows you to work backwards
—addition has subtraction, multiplication has division and exponents have logarithms.
Logarithms are used to determine what exponent a given base would require in order to
produce a certain number.

For further clarification assume the following generic expression for exponents:

x
b = y … … … … … .. 1

Where, b is called the “base”, x is the exponent and y is that certain number. With that in
mind, we have the following as a generic expression for logarithm:

log b y =x … … … … …2

Where, all the variables are given the same label as above (b is base, x is exponent and y is
that certain number).

Using those first two equations (Equation 1 and 2) you can substitute x in Equation 1 with
the statement in Equation 2 to find this rule:

logb y
b = y ……………………3

Notice how the subscript of “log” is the same as the base. If both of those are equal, then
that expression will always hold true.

1.3.1. Properties of Logarithm Functions

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The first column lists a property of logarithms. The second column provides a rational for
the property based on the definition of a logarithm. While the third column provides an
example of the property.
Property For b > 0 , b ≠1 Rational Example

log b 1=0 b =1
0
log 1=0 since 100 =1

log b b=1 b =b
1
log 3 3=1 since 31=3

x x x 3x
log b b =x b =b log 4 4 =3 x since 4 3 x =4 3 x

b =x = is equivalent to
logb x y ln x
b =x e =x
y=log b xSubstitute log b x= y log 5 x
10 =5 x
into the first

statement to validate the

identity.

If log b x=log b y then x= y The logarithms have the If log ( x +7 ) =¿ log 2 x ¿

same base and are equal so
For x >0 and y >0 . Then x +7=2 x ,
the arguments are equal.
7=x

1.3.2. Additional Properties of Logarithms

Listed below are properties of logarithms used to expand and condense logarithmic
expressions. The properties apply to any base b but most applications use common ( log x )
or natural logarithms (ln x ).

Name of the General Rule Assume Example Stated in Words

Property
b> 0 , b ≠1 , m>0 and Assume x > 0
n> 0 and y >0

Product Rule log b (nm)=log b m+ log b n log 3 x=log 3+ log x The logarithm of a
product equals the

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 logarithm of the first
factor plus the
logarithm of the
second factor.

Quotient Rule
log b ( )
m
n ()
=log b m−¿ log b nln
¿
2
y
=ln 2−ln y
The logarithm of a
quotient equals the

logarithm of the
numerator minus the
logarithm of the
denominator.

Power Rule n
log b m =n log b m
3
log x =3 log x The logarithm of a
power equals the
exponent times the
logarithm

Change of Base log m= log m log 3 5=

log 5 The logarithm base b
b or
log b log 3
Formula of m equals the
lnm common logarithm of
log b m=
ln b m divided by the
Note: The quotient common logarithm of
can be written with the original base
any base as long as b.
the base in
numerator and
denominator are the
same.

1.4. Differentials and Integrals

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The differential, dF, of any differentiable function F is an infinitely small increment or
change in the value of F. dF is measured in the same units as F itself.

Example: If x is the position of a moving body measured in units of m (meters), then its
differential, dx, is also in units of m. dx is an infinitely small increment/change in the
position x.

Definition: The derivative of a function F with respect to another function x is defined as

the quotient between their differentials:

dF an infinitely small rise∈ F

=
dx an infinitely smallrun ∈x

1.4.1. The Chain Rule in Terms of Differentials

When we differentiate a composite function, we need to use the Chain Rule. For example,
2

f (x)=e x is a composite function. This is because f is not an exponential function of x but it

is an exponential function of u=x2 which is itself a power function of x. Thus

( )( )
2
x u u
df d e d e du d e du u x '
=e ( e ) =2 x e
2
x
= = =
dx dx dx du du dx

Some basic derivatives

f (x) '
f ( x)
n n−1
x nx
x x
e e

ln x 1
x
sin x cos x
cos x −sin x

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 Some basic integrals

f (x) ∫ f ( x )dx
x for n ≠−1
n n+1
x
+C
n+1
x x
e e +C

1 ln |x|+C
for n ≠ 0
x
ln (a )
a or e for
x x
a
+C
a ≠ 1 , a>0 ln a

e for a ≠ 0
ax ax
e
+C
a
cos (ax )for a ≠ 0 1
sin ( ax )+C
a
sin ( ax ) for a ≠ 0 −1
cos ( ax )+C
a

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