Chapter 2: The Radar Equation

➢ Receiver noise SNR

➢ Integration of radar pulses

➢ Radar cross section of targets

➢ Transmitter Power
➢ PRF and system losses

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Simple form of Radar Equation

1
 Pt G Ae   4
Rmax =  = f ( Pt , G , Ae ,  , S min )
 (4 ) S min 
2

Ae is effective aperture of antenna  is radar cross section

Pt is peak power

G is gain of antenna

S min Minimum of detectable signal by receiver

Under control of Radar designer Target parameter

The simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of actual radar
equipmentINTRODUCTION
to a satisfactory degree
TO RADAR of accuracy.
SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 The failure of Simple Form

1. Statistical nature of Smin (determined by reciever noise).

2. Fluctuation of radar cross section.
3. Losses.
4. Propagation effects (earth‘s surface, weather and atmosphere)

❑ The minimum detectable signal Smin and the target cross section σ are both
statistical in nature and must be expressed in statistical terms.
❑ Thus, Rmax must be described probabilistically rather by a number.

Therefore: The probability of detection : Pd

and The probability of false alarm : Pfa must be considered.

This mean: Rmax = f ( Pt , G , Ae ,  , Smin , Pd , Pfa )

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Detection of Signal in Noise

A-scope presentation
(amplitude versus time or range)

Typical envelope of radar receiver output as a function of time

❑ A, and B, and C represent signal plus noise. A and B would be valid detections,
but C is a missed detection.
❑ Two signals at B and C, representing target echoes of equal amplitude. (noise
additive INTRODUCTION TO RADAR
or subtractive) SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Detection of Signal in Noise : Threshold Detection

❑ Minimum detectable signal- weakest signal receiver can detect

❑ Threshold detection -- Detection based on establishing a

threshold level at the output of the receiver. If the receiver output

exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present.

❑ False alarm: A too low threshold - probability that noise alone will

rise above the threshold and be taken for a real signal.

❑ Miss Detection: A too high threshold – probability that a weak

target not exceed the threshold and missed.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Detection of Signal in Noise : Threshold Detection

The selection of the proper threshold level depends upon how

important it is if a mistake is made either by :

(1) probability of miss detection -- failing to recognize a signal

that is present

(2) probability of false alarm -- falsely indicating the presence of

a signal when no target present

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Receiver Noise
❑ Noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity
❑ Interferes with the ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal.
❑ It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter via receiving antenna
along with the desired signal.
❑ Thermal noise / Johnson noise: if the receiver were perfect that it did not
generate any excess noise, there would still exist some noise generated by the
thermal motion of the electrons in the receiver input stages.
Available Thermal Noise Power at k T BN
input of receiver:

k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10 -23 J/deg

T =K

H(f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter)

fo = frequency of maximum response (usually occurs at midband)
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Receiver Noise and Signal to noise ratio
The noise power in practical receivers is often greater than can be accounted for
by thermal noise alone.
Noise Figure:

S in
noise out of practical receiver N out N
Fn = = = in
noise out of ideal receiver at T0 k T0 Bn Ga S out
N out

Standard Temp T0 = 290 K (at room temp.)

❑ The available gain Ga, is the ratio of the signal out So to the signal in Si
❑ kTo Bn is the input noise Ni in an ideal receiver
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Receiver Noise and Signal to noise ratio
Rearranging Equation, the input signal may be expressed as
k T0 Bn Fn S out
S in =
N out

If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Sin which corresponds to the
minimum detectable signal-to-noise ratio ( So/No)min at the output of IF necessary
for detection, then
 S out 
S min = k T0 BFn   Minimum detectable
 N out  min S/N at the output of IF

Pt G Ae 
R 4
=
max
(4 )2 kT0 BFn (S / N )min
Adv: (S/N) min. independent of B and Fn . It can be expressed as a
function of PD and Pf related to radar user needs.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Integration of Radar Pulses

• A search-radar beam scans the target and will remain in the beam
sufficiently long for more than one pulses to hit the target. This
number is known as hits per scan.

• Many pulses are usually returned from any particular target on

each radar scan and can be used to improve the detection.
• The process of summing all the returned radar pulses to improve
detection is known as “Pulse integration”

• A pulse integrator is a improvement technique to address gains in

probability of detection by using multiple transmit pulses.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses

 r is Revolutions Per Minute (rpm) of Antenna

f p is Pulse Repetition frequency (PRF) of Radar 𝜃ሶ ≡ 𝜔𝑟
360
 B is Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of Antenna 𝜃ሶ (degree per second) = (rpm)
60

n
B
is number of pulse per scan ( hit per scan )

is scan rate in degrees per second n= fP

6 r
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Problem
For a ground based search radar with :
antenna scan rate = 5 rpm
beam width = 1.5o
PRF = 300Hz
B
n= fP
6 r

Ans: The number of hits would be = 15/scan

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses
Types of Integration:

1. Pre-detection integration (Coherent integration ).

2. Post-detection integration (Non-coherent integration ).

1. Pre-detection integration needs to phase of pulses.

2. Post-detection integration don’t need to phase of pulses, only

envelope of pulses need to be aligned

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Integration of Radar Pulses
• Coherent Integration:
– Insertion of a Pulse integrator between the matched filter and
amplitude detector.
– The signal processor samples the return from each transmit
pulse at a spacing equal to the range resolution of the radar
set and adds the returns from N pulses. After it accumulates
the N pulses, performs the amplitude detection and threshold
check.
• Non-Coherent Integration :
– Integrator is placed after the amplitude or square law detector.
– The name non-coherent integration derives from the fact that, since
the signal has undergone amplitude or square law detection, the
phase information is lost.
– The non-coherent integrator operates in the same fashion as the
coherent integrator in that it sums the returns from N pulses before
performing the threshold check.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Coherent Integration Non-Coherent Integration
Predetection Integration Postdetection Integration
Phase information of the Detector destroys phase
echo signal is preserved information. Less efficient
than predetection.
If n pulse are integrated, the If n pulse are integrated, the
SNR of integrated signal is = SNR of integrated signal is
n x SNR. lesser than n x SNR.
Difficult to implement Easy to implement

For most cases, coherent integration is more efficient than noncoherent

integration

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses

Integration efficiency for post detection integration

( S / N )1
Ei (n) =
n (S / N ) N
Ei(n) – Integration efficiency,
SNR1 – Single pulse SNR required to produce a specific Pd if there is no
integration,
SNRN – SNR per pulse required to produce a specific Pd if n pulses are
integrated perfectly.

• The improvement in SNR if n pulses are integrated is = nEi(n)

• Integration improvement factor Ii(n) = nEi(n)

• Also called , equivalent number of pulses integrated (neq).

• In Predetection, (neq) = n
• In postdetection (neq) < n.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses

❑ The integration loss is specified in dB.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

(S/N)n = signal-to-noise ratio of one of the n equal pulses that are integrated
to produce the required probability of detection for a specified probability of
false alarm.
( S / N )1
Ei (n) =
n (S / N ) N
1
 Pt G Ae  n Ei (n)  4
Rmax = 
 (4 ) kT0 BFn ( S / N )1 
2

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross Section (RCS or )

Radar Cross Section (RCS) is the hypothetical area, that would intercept the
incident power at the target, which if scattered isotropically, would produce
the same echo power at the radar, as the actual target.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 The Radar Cross Section

2
Reflected power toward source unit solid angle E
= = 4 R 2 r 2
Incident power density 4 Ei

Types of Targets:
• Simple targets such as: Sphere, Cylinder, Flat plate, Rod, Ogive and cone
• Complex targets such as: Aircraft, Ship, Building, …

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Factors Determining RCS

Figure by MIT OCW.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Threat’s View of the Radar
Antenna Gain G
Range Equation
Transmitted Pulse
Transmit Power PT
Target Cross Section 

Received Pulse
Figure by MIT OCW. R
Distance from Radar to Target

Radar Range Equation

Cannot Control
Can Control

S Pt G2 2 
N = (4)3 R4 k T B L
S n

Cannot Control

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Aspect Angle Dependence of RCS
Cone Sphere Re-entry Vehicle (RV) Example

Figure by MIT OCW.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

Examples of Radar Cross Sections
Square meters
Conventional winged missile 0.1
Small, single engine aircraft, or jet fighter 1
Four passenger jet 2
Large fighter 6
Medium jet airliner 40
Jumbo jet 100
Helicopter 3

Small open boat 0.02

Small pleasure boat (20-30 ft) 2
Cabin cruiser (40-50 ft) 10
Ship (5,000 tons displacement, L Band) 10,000

Automobile / Small truck 100 - 200

Bicycle 2
Man 1
Birds (large -> medium) 10-2 - 10-3
Insects (locust -> fly) 10-4 - 10-5
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 2

Radar Cross Sections of Targets Span at least 50 dB

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 RCS Target Contributors
Inlet
Body Shape
Exhaust Seeker

Altimeter
Control Surfaces

• Types of RCS Contributors

– Structural (Body shape, Control surfaces, etc.)
– Avionics (Altimeter, Seeker, GPS, etc.)
– Propulsion (Engine inlets and exhausts, etc.)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

Techniques for RCS Analysis

Full Scale Measurements

Theoretical Prediction
Scaled Model Measurements
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Used with Permission

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross Section of Sphere
Higher Wavelengths Lower Wavelengths
10
Rayleigh Region
 >> a
Optical  = k / 
Radar Cross Section / a2

Region RCS depends on volume

1 rather than by its shape
 << a

 >> a Mie or Resonance

Resonance or Mie Region
Rayleigh Region
10-1 Region Oscillations
Backscattered wave
interferes with
creeping wave
a
RCS larger compared
10-2 to the two regions
Optical Region
 << a
 =  a2 (for ex. sphere
10-3 RCS)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20
Surface and edge
Figure by MIT OCW . Circumference/ wavelength = 2a /  scattering occur
Depends more on
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition the shape
Chapter 2
 Radar Cross Section Calculation
• Three regions of wavelength
Rayleigh ( >> a)
Mie / Resonance ( ~ a)
Optical ( << a)

❑ cross sections of raindrops and other meteorological particles fall within

rayleigh region at the usual radar frequencies.
❑ scattering from complex targets : aircraft , ship comes under optical region at
microwave frequencies.

• Other simple shapes

– Examples: Cylinders, Flat Plates, Rods, Cones, Ogives
– Some amenable to relatively straightforward solutions in some
wavelength regions

• Complex targets:
– Examples: Aircraft, Missiles, Ships)
– RCS changes significantly with very small changes in frequency and /
or INTRODUCTION
viewing angle
TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 Backscatter of Short Pulse
from Sphere
Specular
Return

Creeping Wave Return

Radius of sphere is equal

to the radar wavelength
Figure by MIT OCW.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 The Radar Cross Section
Aircraft :

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross Section of Cessna 150L
Measured at RATSCAT (6585th Test Group) Holloman AFB for FAA
40
S Band
Radar Cross Section (dBsm)

VV
Polarization
20

-20
Courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration

0 90 180 270 360

Aspect Angle (degrees)
Cessna 150L (in takeoff) Cessna 150L (in flight)

Scott Studio Photography with permission Scott Studio Photography with permission

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

Ships:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations
N
sr (t ) =  ai sin( 2 f t + i ) = A sin( 2 f t +  )
i =1

target
s1 (t )
s2 (t )
s 3 (t )
s N (t )

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations
Swerling Target Models:

Case 0: No-Fluctuation in radar cross section occurs.

Case 1: Scan to Scan Fluctuation (Rayleigh scattering ) or slow Fluctuation with PDF:

1 
p ( ) = exp(− )  0
 av  av
Case 2: Pulse to Pulse Fluctuation or Fast Fluctuation with same PDF of case 1:

Case 3: Scan to Scan Fluctuation (as in case 1) but with PDF given by:
4 2
p ( ) = exp(− )  0
 2
av  av
Swerling assume that target is very big and contain many small targets. It can be
modeled as one large scattrer together with a number of small scatterers.

Case 4: Pulse to Pulse Fluctuation or Fast Fluctuation with same PDF of case 3:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations
Fluctuations loss :

Radar Cross-Section Loss in radar equation:

1
  4

 Pt G Ae  n Ei ( n) 
Rmax = 1 
 (4 )2 kT BF ( S / N ) (L ) ne 
 0 n 1 f 

Lf = fluctuation loss for one pulse of

the fluctuating target

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Decorrelation by frequency Diversity & Agility
Phase difference between echo signals from two scatterers at a distance D

A change in frequency Δf gives change in phase difference Δ Φ

Frequency Diversity: Multiple TX/RX in different frequency is used. Example is air

traffic control radar for reliability of detection.

Frequency Agility: Pulse to Pulse change in radar frequency by a single wide band TX.
Combat hostile narrowband jamming
It don’t used for MTI radars.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
 TRANSMITTER POWER

➢ The power Pt in the radar equation is the peak power.

➢ The average radar power Pav, is the average transmitter power over the
pulse-repetition period.
➢ If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width Ʈ and
pulse-repetition period Tp = l / f p , the average power is related to the peak
power by

➢ The ratio Pav/PT, Ʈ /TP, or Ʈ *fp is called the duty cycle of the radar.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 TRANSMITTER POWER

➢ Radar equation in terms of the average power

➢ The product of bandwidth and the pulse width is of the order of unity in most
pulse-radar applications.
➢ If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, then radar equation
written in terms of the energy

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) and Range ambiguity

- PRF is determined primarily by the maximum range at which targets are

expected
- - echoes received after an interval exceeding the PRI are called “multiple-
time-around” echoes
- - these can result in erroneous range measurements
- - consider three targets A, B and C.
- Here A is within the maximum unambiguous range Runambig,
- B is between Runambig and 2Runambig and
- C is between 2Runambig and 3Runambig
c
c fP =
2 Run = c T = 2 Run
fP
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2
PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) and Range ambiguity

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Resolving Range ambiguity
-one way of distinguishing multiple time around targets is to operate with a
varying PRF.
-The echo from an unambiguous target will appear at the same place on each
sweep, however echoes from multiple time around targets will spread out.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Resolving Range ambiguity

- the number of separate PRFs will depend on the degree of

multiple time targets.
- Second time around targets need only 2 separate PRFs to be
resolved
- - alternative methods to mark successive pulses to identify
multiple time around targets include changing amplitude,
pulse width, frequency, phase or polarization from pulse to
pulse

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 System Losses
Transmit Losses Receive Losses
Radome Radome
Circulator Circulator
Waveguide Feed Waveguide Feed
Waveguide Waveguide
Antenna Efficiency Combiner
Beam Shape Receiver Protector
Low Pass Filters Rotary Joints
Rotary Joints Transmit / Receive Switch
Scanning Antenna Efficiency
Atmospheric Beam Shape
Quantization Scanning
Field Degradation Doppler Straddling
Range Straddling
Weighting
Non-Ideal Filter
CFAR
Quantization
Atmospheric
Field Degradation

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Major Loss Terms in Radar Equation
• Beam Shape Loss
– Radar return from target with scanning radar is
modulated by shape of antenna beam as it scans
across target. Can be 2 to 4 dB
• Scanning Antenna Loss
– For phased array antenna, gain of beam less than that on
boresite
• Inputs to System Noise Temperature
– Noise received by antenna
Local RF noise
Galactic noise
– Receiver noise factor
– Receive waveguide losses
– Antenna ohmic losses

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Nature of Beam Shape Loss
Location of Pulses

Radar Equation assumes n

pulses are integrated, all
Antenna with gain G.
Main
Beam Except for the pulse at the
center of the beam, the
actual pulses illuminate the
target with a gain less than
the maximum.

 (Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1, p 82)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

Major Loss Terms in Radar Equation
• Waveguide and Microwave Losses
– Transmit waveguide losses (including feed, etc)
– Rotary joints, circulator, duplexer
• Signal Processing Loss
– Range and Doppler Weighting
– A /D Quantization Losses
– Adaptive thresholding (CFAR) Loss
– Range straddling Loss
• Lens Effect Loss
– Refraction in atmosphere causes spreading of beam and
thus degradation in S/N
• Atmospheric Attenuation Loss
– Attenuation as radar beam travels through atmosphere
(2 way loss)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Rectangular Waveguide Attenuation
Frequency Frequency Range Attenuation- Lowest to
Band of Dominant TE10 Mode (GHz) Highest Frequency (dB/100 ft)

UHF 0.35 - 0.53 0.054 - 0.034

Aluminum
L Band 0.96 - 1.44 0.20 - 0.135

S Band 2.6 - 3.95 1.10 - 0.75

C Band 3.95 - 5.85 2.07 - 1.44

Brass
X Band 8.2 - 12.40 6.42 - 4.45

Ku Band 12.4 - 18.0 9.58 - 8.04

Silver
Ka Band Clad 26.5 - 40.0 21.9 - 15.0
Copper

(Adapted from Volakis, Reference 7, pp 51-40 to 51- 41)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Lens Loss vs. Range
• The gradient of atmospheric refraction at lower elevation angles,
causes a spreading of the radar beam, and thus a small
diminishment radar power
• This lens loss is frequency independent
• It is significant only for targets that are at long range.
3.0
Lens Loss for Point Targets (dB)

0.0
Elevation
Angle
2.0 0.5

1.0

1.0
2.0

4.0
0.0 8.0
30 100 300 1000 3000
Slant Range (nmi) (Adapted from Blake, Reference 5, p 192)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Loss Due to Atmospheric Attenuation
Attenuation vs. Range to Target
Attenuation vs. Frequency (X-Band 10 GHz)
8

Two way Attenuation to Target (dB)

100 Elevation Angle
0.0°
Two way Attenuation through
Entire Troposphere (dB)

10 0.5°
Elevation
Angle 1° 4 1.0°

1 5° 2.0°
2
10° 5.0°
10.0°
0.1 0
100 1,000 10,000 100,000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Radar Frequency (MHz) Radar to Target Distance (nmi.)

0,1,5,30 deg (Adapted from Blake, see Reference 5, p 192)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Major Loss Terms in Radar Equation
• Bandwidth Correction Factor
– Receiver not exact matched filter for transmitted pulse
• Integration Loss
– Non coherent integration of pulses not as efficient as
coherent integration
• Fluctuation Loss
– Target return fluctuates as aspect angle changes relative
to radar
• Margin (Field Degradation) Loss
– Characteristics of radar deteriorates over time (~3 dB
not unreasonable to expect over time)
Water in transmission lines
Weak or poorly tuned transmitter tubes
Deterioration in receiver noise figure

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2