The Nervous System: Action Potential
Introduction to Neurons and Electrical Signals
Neurons communicate through electrical impulses called action potentials.
Action potentials are uniform in strength and speed.
The brain interprets signals based on the frequency and number of action potentials.
The action potential is a fundamental aspect of anatomy, physiology, and life.
Electricity and the Body
The body is electrically neutral overall, with equal amounts of positive and negative charges.
Voltage is the measure of potential energy generated by separated charges, measured in
millivolts (mV) in the body.
Membrane potential is the difference in charge across a cell membrane.
Current is the flow of electricity from one point to another.
Resistance is what impedes current flow; insulators have high resistance, conductors have
low resistance.
Currents in the body involve the flow of positively or negatively charged ions across cell
membranes.
Resting Membrane Potential
A resting neuron is more negative on the inside relative to the extracellular space.
The resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV.
Outside the neuron: high concentration of (sodium ions).
Inside the neuron: high concentration of (potassium ions) and negatively charged proteins.
A neuron with a negative membrane potential is polarized.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
The sodium-potassium pump is a protein that maintains the electrochemical gradient.
For every two (potassium ions) pumped into the cell, three (sodium ions) are pumped out.
This creates a concentration gradient and charge difference, making the outside of the
neuron more positive.
Nature hates gradients, and ions will want to even out concentration and charge.
Ion Channels
Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to pass across the membrane.
Types of ion channels:
Voltage-gated channels: open and close at specific membrane potentials (e.g., sodium
channels open around -55 mV).
Ligand-gated channels: open when a specific neurotransmitter or hormone binds to them.
Mechanically-gated channels: open in response to physical stretching of the membrane.
When ion channels open, ions diffuse across the membrane down their electrochemical
gradient.
Graded Potential vs. Action Potential
Graded potential: A small, localized change in the membrane potential due to a few open
channels.
Action potential: A large change in membrane potential that sends long-distance signals
down the axon.
Depolarization
Depolarization: Making the membrane potential less negative.
An environmental stimulus triggers sodium channels to open, increasing the charge inside
the membrane.
A threshold of approximately -55 mV must be reached for an action potential to occur (all-or-
nothing).
At the threshold, voltage-gated sodium channels open, and (sodium ions) rush in, causing
massive depolarization (up to +40 mV).
Action potential: A temporary reversal of membrane potential.
Repolarization and Hyperpolarization
Repolarization: Returning the membrane potential to its resting state.
Voltage-gated potassium channels open, and (potassium ions) flow out, rebalancing the
charges.
Hyperpolarization: The membrane potential briefly becomes more negative than the resting
potential (e.g., -75 mV).
The sodium-potassium pump restores the resting membrane potential.
Refractory Period
Refractory period: A period during which the axon cannot respond to another stimulus, no
matter how strong.
This prevents signals from traveling in both directions down the axon.
Signal Strength and Conduction Velocity
The strength of an action potential is always the same.
The frequency of action potentials varies with the strength of the stimulus.
Weak stimulus: Less frequent action potentials.
Strong stimulus: More frequent action potentials.
Conduction velocity (speed of action potentials) varies.
Fastest in pathways governing reflexes.
Slower in glands, guts, and blood vessels.
Myelin Sheath and Saltatory Conduction
Myelin sheath: An insulating layer around the axon that increases transmission speed.
Currents leap from one gap in the myelin to the next.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath.
Saltatory conduction: The "leaping" of action potentials along myelinated axons.
