Distance Measurements in Astrophysics

200 years

Hubble Space Telescope 1990

William Herschel's 49-inch (1,200 mm)
"40-foot" telescope of 1789.

James Webb Telescope 2021

 1 AU = 1.496 x 108 km = 93 million
miles
1 ly = 9.5 x 1012 km = 63,240 AU
1 pc = 3.09 x 1013 km = 3.26 ly

• The picture on the left is the galaxy M32, which is right next to the Andromeda galaxy and is 0.77 megaparsecs (Mpc),
or 770,000 parsecs, away.
• The galaxy on the middle is NGC 7768. It is 120 Mpc, or 120,000,000 parsecs, away. M32 looks much bumpier than NGC
7768 because it is closer to us.
• The nearest star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which is a red dwarf star located about 4.24 light-years away.
 The Messier objects are a set of 110 astronomical objects (1776)

Charles Messier M1 (NGC 1952) : crab nebula M32 (NGC 221) : Andromeda galaxy
6,500 light-years 2.5 million light-years

In 1864, the CN was

expanded into
the General Catalogue
of Nebulae and John Louis Emil Dreyer
Clusters of Stars (GC)
5079 entries New General
William Herschel & Caroline Herschel John Herschel Catalogue (NGC) in
1888
The Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars
(CN), 2500 entries
Distance Measurement in Astrophysics

Rule of thumb :
pc: measure of interstellar
distance
Kpc : measure of galactic sizes
Mpc : measure of intergalactic
distances
Gpc : measure of visible
universe
Astronomers use various methods to measure relative distances in the Universe,
depending upon the object being observed. Collectively these techniques are
known as the cosmic distance ladder .

The Essential Cosmic perspective : Benett et al

 Distance indicators

Primary distance indicators :

❑ Radar Echo Secondary distance indicators :
❑ Parallax ❑ Tully – Fischer relation
❑ Moving cluster method ❑ Supernovae
❑ spectroscopic parallax ❑ Sunyaev Zeldovich Effect
❑ RR Lyrae stars ❑ H II regions
❑ Cepheid variables ❑ Gravitational Lensing
Radar Measurement :
▪ Beam travels at the speed of c.
▪ Measure the time it takes beam to leave Earth, bounce off the planet , and return to Earth.
▪ Only useful to distances ~ 10 AU beyond which radar echo is too faint to detect.
▪ The astronomical unit (AU, the average distance between the Sun and Earth) is measured with extraordinary
accuracy using radar ranging on the transits of Venus and several asteroids .

Lunar laser ranging

directs a laser beam at the retroreflector array placed on the Moon following the 1969 Moon landing
using the round light travel time to determine the Earth-Moon distance with accuracy. The
APOLLO operation , has achieved measurements of the Earth-Moon distance to sub-mm
level accuracy
❑ Stellar parallax :
Stellar parallax is the only ‘direct’ method astronomers have to measure distance
outside the Solar System. It relies on principles of trigonometry.
1 𝐴𝑈
𝑑 ≈
𝑝
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 206265 ′′
206265 𝐴𝑈
𝑑 ≈
𝑝′′

Giovanni Cassini , Jean Richer (1673)

distance to Mars , 140 million km which
was only off by 7% of today's accepted
value of 150 million km
The parallax angle is small
❑ Sun’s nearest neighbor, Proxima Centauri, has a parallax angle of only 0.0002° (770 milliarcseconds) but
it allows astronomers to measure distance to stars up to 10,000 light years away.
❑ Smallest parallax angle currently measurable : .001’’~ 1000 pc.
For more remote stars the parallax angle is too small to accurately measure distance.
Friedrich Bessel in 1838 :
"Determination of the distance to the 61st star in Cygnus”

❑ Bessel used the Earth’s orbit as a surveyor’s baseline to measure the apparent angular shift
of a nearby star as the Earth moves around the Sun (trigonometric parallax)

❑ First successful measurement of stellar parallax

Measured Parallax: 0.314 arcseconds. (About 10.4 light-years)
Modern Parallax: ~0.287 arcseconds (11.4 light-years ~ 3.49 parsec)

❑ 0.314 arcseconds = 0.00008722 degrees !!

 Earth’s atmosphere makes these small angles very
difficult to measure with ground-based telescopes.
For this reason, the Hipparcos satellite was launched
in 1989 .
Mission ended on August 15, 1993.

Above Earths’ atmosphere, Hipparcos

can measure angles as small as 0.3 x 10-6 degree
(1 milliarcsecond).

http://www.shadetreephysics.com/dist.htm
Gaia (Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics)
mission (ESA launch 2013)
❑ measure parallaxes for some 50 million objects, each with a
precision better than 10 microarcseconds
❑ officially retired on March 27, 2025, after successfully
mapping the Milky Way for over 11 years.
❑ Apparent brightness (F) (Apparent Magnitude , m) : how bright the star appears to a detector here on
Earth. (Flux F is energy/time/area) 𝐿
F = 4𝜋𝑑2
❑ The luminosity(L) (energy/time) of a star is the amount of light it emits from its surface.

❑ The difference between luminosity and apparent brightness depends on distance. luminosity is an
intrinsic property of the star. However, apparent brightness is not an intrinsic property of the star; it
depends on your location. So, everyone will measure a different apparent brightness for the same star
if they are all different distances away from that star.

❑ Brightness – apparent magnitude relation : the brightness b1 and b2 of two stars with corresponding magnitudes
m1 and m2
𝑏2
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 = 2.5 log10
𝑏1

❑ F is related to the brightness b of the source: the brighter the

source, the larger would be the radiant flux at a place . Replace b
by F.
𝐹2 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝐿2 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
= 100 5 = 100 5
𝐹1 𝐿1
Apparent Magnitude m

Greek astronomer Hipparchus devised this system around 150 B.C.E. He put the brightest stars into the first magnitude class,
the next brightest stars into second magnitude class, and so on until he had all of the visible stars grouped into six magnitude
classes. The dimmest stars were of sixth magnitude. The magnitude system was based on how bright a star appeared to the
unaided eye.

By the 19th century astronomers had developed the technology to objectively measure a star's brightness. Instead of
abandoning the long-used magnitude system, astronomers refined it and quantified it. They established that a difference
of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a factor of exactly 100 times in intensity. The other intervals of magnitude were based on
the 19th century belief of how the human eye perceives differences in brightnesses. It was thought that the eye sensed
differences in brightness on a logarithmic scale so a star's magnitude is not directly proportional to the actual amount of
energy you receive. Now it is known that the eye is not quite a logarithmic detector.
Your eyes perceive equal ratios of intensity as equal intervals of brightness. On the quantified magnitude scale, a
magnitude interval of 1 corresponds to a factor of 1001/5 or approximately 2.512 times the amount in actual intensity.
For example, first magnitude stars are about 2.5122-1 = 2.512 times brighter than 2nd magnitude stars, 2.512×2.512 =
2.5123-1 = 2.5122 times brighter than 3rd magnitude stars, 2.512×2.512×2.512 = 2.5124-1 = 2.5123 times brighter than
4th magnitude stars, etc. Notice that you raise the number 2.512 to a power equal to the difference in magnitudes.
Apparent Magnitude m

Apparent magnitude m of a star is a number that tells how bright that star appears at its great distance from Earth.
The scale is "backwards" and logarithmic. Larger magnitudes correspond to fainter stars. Note that brightness is another
way to say the flux of light, in Watts per square meter, coming towards us.
On this magnitude scale, a brightness ratio of 100 is set to correspond exactly to a magnitude difference of 5. As
magnitude is a logarithmic scale, one can always transform a brightness ratio B2/B1 into the equivalent magnitude
difference m2-m1 by the formula:
𝑏2 for brightness ratio b2/b1=100, we have log(b2/b1)
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = −2.5 log10 =log(100)= log(102) = 2, and then m2-m1=-5
𝑏1

Examples: apparent magnitudes: Sun = -26.7, Moon = -12.6, Venus = -4.4, Sirius = -1.4, Vega = 0.00, faintest naked eye
star = +6.5, brightest quasar = +12.8, faintest object = +30 to +31.

Problem : Star A has an apparent magnitude = 5.4 and star B has an apparent magnitude = 2.4. Which star is brighter and by
how many times?
Star B is brighter than star A because it has a lower apparent magnitude. Star B is brighter by 5.4 - 2.4 = 3 magnitudes. In
terms of intensity star B is 2.512(5.4-2.4) = 2.5123.0 = approximately 15.8 times brighter than star A. The amount of energy you
receive from star B is almost 16 times greater than what you receive from star A.
Or. Use
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑏2
= 100 5 = 100.4×3=101.2≈15.85
𝑏1
Experimental Methods

▪ Telescope with equipped with sensitive detectors, such as CCD cameras, to collect
light from stars.
▪ Computer with photometry software
▪ Standard star catalog (stars with known magnitudes)
▪ Filters (B, V, R bands etc.) to perform standardized photometry
(Standardized filters, like those in the UBV system (ultraviolet, blue, visual), are used to
isolate specific wavelength ranges of light, allowing for more accurate measurements)
❑ ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE (M): This is a measure of an intrinsic property of the star or object, and is thus
independent of distance. There is a decided 'standard distance', 10 parsecs, from which all stars can be fairly compared.

❑ Absolute magnitude is simply its apparent magnitude if placed at 10 parsecs. Only a few stars are this near to us, so
nearly all stars have an absolute magnitude that is brighter than their apparent magnitude.

2
𝐹2 𝑚−𝑀 𝑑 𝑝𝑐
= 100 5 =
𝐹1 10 𝑝𝑐

Distance Modulus :

𝑚 − 𝑀 = 5 log10 𝑑 − 5

Relation connecting Luminosity and Absolute magnitude

𝐿2 𝑀1 −𝑀2
= 100 5
𝐿1 For Sirius A , m= -1.47 , M = + 1.4.
It is 2.7 pc away.
 Luminosity and Temperature

Compare between two objects

 Standard Candles
It’s easy to measure an object’s apparent magnitude,
but determining its absolute magnitude is a lot
harder. There’s not much chance of getting 10 parsecs
away from a star and holding up a light meter!

Standard Candles:
1. Find an object whose luminosity is known.
2. Measure the energy (Flux) you observe (apparent brightness)
3. Use inverse square law to find the distance

Such an object with known luminosity is called a “Standard Candle”.

Cepheid Variables : a particular type of variable star of known luminosity

 Cepheid Variables
Very luminous yellow giant or supergiant stars
Regular pulsation → varying in brightness with periods 1 to 70 days

.
❑ Henrietta Leavitt ---- study of 1777 variable stars in SMC.
❑ 1912 → determined period of 25 variable stars
which leads to period-luminosity relation.
❑ Brighter cepheid stars → longer periods
❑ period of the Cepheid variables depends on the star's
mean absolute magnitude; the more luminous the star, the
longer the period
❑ With the Hubble Space Telescope we can observe Cepheid
variables in galaxies at distances of about 100 million
light years.
Determine distances:
•Find the period.
•This gives the luminosity.
•Measure the apparent brightness.
•Determine the distance from the luminosity and brightness.

𝑚 − 𝑀 = 5 log10 𝑑 − 5
 𝑀 = 𝑎 log 𝑃 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 + 𝑏
V-band light curve derived for the 15.1day Cepheid SZ Cyg
from Durham observations

Using GAIA DR2 parallaxes for 248 Classical Cepheids Groenewegen (2018) found the PL relation:

𝑀 = −(2.20 log 𝑃[𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠] − 1.0) − 2.05

Example : A Cepheid variable star has a period of 3.7 days Its apparent magnitude is 5.5. How far
away is this Cepheid variable star?

Ans : This star is 524.8 parsecs away.

 Distance measurement using Supernovae

Type Ia supernova in NGC4526 virgo cluster (15 MPc) (HST)

At greater distances than these, astronomers are unable to observe individual stars, so Cepheid
variables are no longer useful. Instead astronomers look to some of the brightest events in the Universe
— supernovae
❑ An incredibly luminous (luminosity ~1010 Ls (entire galaxy)) standard candle, the Type Ia SN, occurs
in a close binary system comprised of a white dwarf (WD) and some companion star.
❑ Found in elliptical and spiral galaxies . (SNII only in spirals)

❑ Type 1a supernovae result when the white dwarf companion in a binary star system accretes matter to
the point where it becomes unstable and explodes.

❑ It can be used for sources at cosmological distances, and are also invaluable for determining
the Hubble constant. Type Ia SNe observations out to > 1000 Mpc and more than that .

❖ Most notably, type Ia SNe observations out to z ∼ 1.5 (5.88 billion pc)
have provided the first evidence that the expansion
of the universe is accelerating
❑ The shape of the light curve is the same for all type Ia supernovae.
❑ Characteristic light curve : fast rise, rapid fall.
❑ The amount of light produced after the explosion (the peak) is the same,
and the decrease in brightness follows a constant curve.

❑ Because the maximum absolute magnitude achieved by all type Ia supernova is

known, distance to the supernova can be determined.

Light curves of thermonuclear supernovae in galaxies of

known distances. The supernovae with slower fading rate
have greater luminosities at maximum light.
 Type Ia supernovae result from the explosions
of white dwarf stars. These supernovae vary
widely in peak brightness, how long they stay
bright, and how they fade away, as the lower
graph shows. Theoretical models (dashed black
lines) seek to account for the differences, for
example why faint supernovae fade quickly and
bright supernovae fade slowly. A new analysis
by the Nearby Supernova Factory indicates that
when peak brightnesses are accounted for, as
shown in the upper graph, the late-time
behaviors of faint and bright supernovae
provide solid evidence that the white dwarfs
that caused the explosions had different
masses, even though the resulting blasts are all
“standard candles.”

The white dwarfs exploding as type Ia supernovae have a range of masses, and the resulting light-curve width
is directly proportional to the total mass involved in the explosion.
 Directly measurable from Experiment :
Not directly measurable :
1. Apparent magnitude (m)
1. Absolute magnitude (M)
2. Period P
2. Luminosity L
3. Spectrum (to estimate temperature, metallic elements etc.)

How to get M and distance d ? Calibration:

From Cepheids : For closest cepheids ,
1. Measure P . 1. Measure d (using parallax )
2. Use P-L relation (This is not directly measurable, 2. measure m
it’s deduced from calibration) 3. Use distance modulus to find M.
1. From L, measure M 4. measure P
2. Use distance modulus relation to find d 5. Combine data from known cepheids with known distance
to fit with 𝑀 = 𝑎 log 𝑃 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 + 𝑏

For faraway cepheids, (parallax is impossible)

Measure P. Use P-L relation (calibration plot) to find M. Apply distance modulus relation to find d
 Hubble’s Law (1929):

❑ Measured the distances to 25 galaxies.

❑ Compared the distances and recession velocities.

❑ Calculated recession velocity by assuming the redshift

Of spectral lines is due to Doppler effect.

❑ Discovered :
Recession velocity gets larger with distance.
Systematic expansion of the Universe. Absorption lines in light from distant galaxies are redshifted
when compared with light from the Sun. Image by Harold T
Stokes, Brigham Young University.

RedShift: measures the Doppler effect reveals the recessional velocity of

relative difference between emitted and observed a celestial object but it does not reveal anything about
wavelengths from an object cosmic distance. For example, the Andromeda galaxy,
2.2 million light years from Earth, shows a small
blueshift of 0.001 because it is moving towards our
If v << c
galaxy at 0.001 x c= 3 x 105 m/s or 300 km/s.
Cosmological redshift

Redshifts of less than 0.01 are considered to be primarily due to the Doppler effect. Quasars were the
first celestial bodies observed to have anomalously high redshifts (z > 0.1).

Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity :

FRW metric :

For radial null geodesic,

Cosmological Redshift
𝑎ሶ 𝐻0
Hubble Parameter : H = =
𝑎 𝑎

1 𝑑
𝑑𝑎 Scale factor is unity today (by convention)
If we use k=0 for simplicity , 𝑐 න 2 = න 𝑑𝑟
𝑎𝑒 𝑎 𝐻 0

𝑐 1
𝑑= 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑧 1+𝑧 =
𝐻0 𝑎𝑒

𝑣
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 ≪ 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ≈ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑 Back to Hubble’s law
𝑐
 Considering single photon,
Emitted Power :

Observed Power

Flux

Luminosity distance The luminosity distance H0dL versus the redshift z for a flat
cosmological model, compared with the observational data
Ref: . R. Choudhury and T. Padmanabhan, Astron. Astrophys.
429, 807 (2005)
The newest and farthest known galaxy to date was discovered in 2021 and is known as GN-z11.
The light that we see from GN-z11 today was emitted when the universe was only 400 million years old.