UNIT 1

Internet Architecture and Network Layer

 Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks.
Internet allow data communication between millions of devices connected worldwide.
It uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). .
Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address.
IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computers
location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so that
the user can locate a computer by a name.
For example, a DNS server will resolve a name https://www.example.com to a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.

 How Does the Internet Work?

 The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers.
 Here, the client is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet.
 Servers are computers connected indirectly to the Internet and they store all the websites in
those large computers.
 These servers are connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet Service Providers) and
are identified with an IP address.
 Each website has its Domain Name, as it is difficult for a person to remember long numbers or
strings (IP addresses).
 When a user enters a human-readable domain name (e.g., www.example.com) into a client
application, the client cannot directly connect to the server using this name.
 Instead, it requires the server's numerical IP address. DNS acts as a "phone book" for the
internet, translating these domain names into their corresponding IP addresses.
 Once the DNS resolution process is complete, the DNS resolver returns the IP address of the
target server to the client.
 Once the IP address is found, the browser will pass on the request to the respective server.
 The server then processes the request and displays the content of the website that the client
wants.
 Intranet

An intranet is a kind of private network.

It is used by different organizations and only members/staff of that organization have access to
this.
It is a system in which multiple computers of an organization are connected through an intranet. As
this is a private network, so no one from the outside world can access this network.
So many organizations and companies have their intranet network and only its members and staff
have access to this network. This is also used to protect your data and provide data security to a
particular organization, as it is a private network and does not leak data to the outside world.

ARROW COMPUTER ACADEMY ACN UNIT 1

  ISP
ISP stands for Internet Service Provider.
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that provides internet access to individuals,
businesses and other organizations.
They connect us to the internet, either through wired connections (like fiber or cable) or wireless
methods (like Wi-Fi or mobile data).

What do ISPs do?

 Internet Access – Connect users to the internet via fiber optic, cable, or wireless connections.
 Web Hosting – Offer hosting services for websites.
 Email Services – Provide email accounts for communication.
 Online Security – Offer antivirus, firewalls, and spam protection.
 Technical Support – Help users troubleshoot internet-related issues.
 Domain Registration – ISPs can help users register and manage domain names
 Bundled Services: ISPs generally offer packages that include internet access along with other
services like cable TV, phone lines, or streaming services.

List of ISP
 Reliance Jio
 Vodafone Idea
 Airtel
 BSNL

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

 The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is an international
organization that plays a important role in the functioning of the Internet.
 It manages the maintenance of namespaces and numerical spaces of the Internet including
domain names and IP addresses which enable secure and stable operation of the internet.

Key Roles and Functions

 Domain Name System (DNS):
ICANN coordinates policies related to the Domain Name System, which translates human-
readable domain names (like example.com) into numerical IP addresses.
 IP Address Management:
It also manages the allocation of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, which are unique identifiers
for devices on a network.
 Global Infrastructure:
The organization manages the DNS root server system, which acts as the foundation for the
entire internet's naming system.

ARROW COMPUTER ACADEMY ACN UNIT 1

IP Addressing

An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an internet or local

network.
It is identifier that allows information to be sent between devices on a network.
There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.

IPV4
IPv4 addresses are unique.
 They are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one, connection to the
Internet.
 Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at the same time.

Address Space (IP V4):

Address space rule

The address space in a protocol that uses N-bits to define an Address is = 2N
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more
than 4 billion).
The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion and host
portion with the help of a subnet mask.

1. Network ID (Network address):

Identifies the network on which a host computer can be found.
2. Host ID (or Host address):
Identifies a specific device on the network indicated by the network ID.

Notations
There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address: Binary notation and Dotted decimal
notation.

1. Binary Notation:
 In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
 Each octet is often referred to as a byte.
 So it is common to hear an IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-byte address.
The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:

01110101 10010101 00011101 11101010

2. Dotted-Decimal Notation:
 The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to
decimal and separated by a period (dot).
 Is is called asdotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100).
 The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 − 11111111 binary.

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IP Address classes
Q] Describe types of IP address classes. [4M]

 IPv4 addressing, use the concept of classes.

 This architecture is called classful addressing.
 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.
 Each class occupies some part of the address space.
 We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary notation or dotted-
decimal notation.
 If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can immediately tell us the class of the
address.

 Class A
Class A range for first byte is 0-127.
Class A type of IP addresses have First byte consisting of Network address with first bit as 0
and the next 3 bytes with host id.
Hence, number of hosts are more when compared to number of networks.
There are 128 possible Class A networks.
However, any address that begins with 127. is considered a loopback address.
Host Ranges from:-
0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Example
2.134.213.2

 Class B
Class B range for first byte is 128-191.
This type has first two bytes specifying network ID with starting two bits as 10 and last two bytes
referring to host ID.
Host Ranges from
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Example
135.58.24.17

 Class C

Class C range for first byte is 192-223.

This class has first three bytes referring to network with starting bits as 110 and last byte signifies
Host ID. Here, number of networks is more when compared to number of hosts in each network.
Host Ranges from
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
Example
192.168.178.1

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  Class D

Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.

The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1 1 1 0.
The remaining bits recognize hosts.
Class D IP address range includes 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

 Class E

Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use.

The high-order bits in a class E address are set to binary 1111.
Class E IP address range includes 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can immediately tell us the class of the
address.

If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first byte defines the class.

Fig: Finding the class in decimal notation

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  Default Subnet Mask

A default mask in Classful Addressing defined as is a 32-bit number obtained by setting host bits to
all 0s and setting network bits to all 1s.
Default subnet masks for Class A, Class B Class C:

 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0

 Find the network address from an IP address :-

To find the network address from an IP address and subnet mask, you need to perform a bitwise AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask.

Network Address ---> Destination IP Address

AND
Default Mask

Example: What is the Network address if the destination address is 140.179.240.200

It’s a Class B, so the Mask is: 255.255.0.0

140.179.220.200 Class B address

255.255.0.0 Default Mask

In Binary:
10001100 10110011 11110000 11001000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
10001100 10110011 00000000 00000000

By doing this, the computer has found that our Network Address is 140.179.0.0

Example: What is the Network address if the destination address is 206.15.143.89

206.15.143.89 -> Class C

Default mask -> 255.255.255.0

11001110 0000 1111 1000 1111 0101 1001

11111111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
11001110 0000 1111 1000 1111 0000 0000

Network Address -> 206.15.143.0

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Subnetting
 Subnetting is a technique of partitioning an IP Network into several small-sized logical sub-
networks. These subnetworks are known as subnets.
 An IP address is made up of the combination of the network segment and a host segment.
A subnet is constructed by accepting the bits from the IP address host portion which are then
used to assign a number of small-sized sub-networks in the original network.
 The Subnetting basically converts the host bits into the network bits.
 A bigger network is divided into smaller networks, so maintenance is easier for smaller
networks.
 For example, if we consider a class A address, the possible number of hosts is 224 for each
network, it is obvious that it is difficult to maintain such a huge number of hosts, but it would
be quite easier to maintain if we divide the network into small parts.

Consider a Network Id :- 193.1.2.0

It is a class C IP so, there are 24 bits in the network id part and 8 bits in the host id part.

 In class C the first 3 octets are network bits so it remains as it is.

 For Subnet-1: The first bit which is chosen from the host id part is zero and the range will be
from (193.1.2.00000000 till you get all 1's in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.01111111) except for
the first bit which is chosen zero for subnet id part.
Thus, the range of subnet 1 is: 193.1.2.0 to 193.1.2.127

 For Subnet-2: The first bit chosen from the host id part is one and the range will be from
(193.1.2.100000000 till you get all 1's in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.11111111).
Thus, the range of subnet-2 is: 193.1.2.128 to 193.1.2.255

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Finding The Subnet Address:

We use binary notation for both the address and the mask and then apply the AND operation to find
the subnet address.

Subnetwork Address ---> Destination IP Address

AND
Subnet Mask

Example: What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 200.45.34.56 and the
subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?

Solution :
Step 1: Convert given IP and Subnet mask to Binary
Step 2: Perform AND Operation on these two.

11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000 IP Address 200.45.34.56

AND

11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000 Subnet Mask 255.255.240.0

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000 Subnet Address 200.45.32.0

The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.

OR
To find the subnet address, keep the network bits in the IP address as it is, and make all host bits as 0’s :

Destination address 200.45.34.56 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

Subnet Mask 255.255.240.0 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000

From Subnet Mask, network bits are 20 and host bits are 12.
Keeping first 20 bits as it is, and making host bits as 0, the subnet address is obtained as given
below.

Subnet Address 200.45.32.0 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000

ARROW COMPUTER ACADEMY ACN UNIT 1

Example
A company is granted the site address 201.70.64.0 (class C). The company needs six subnets.
Design the subnets.

Solution:
The number of 1s in the default mask is 24 (class C).
The company needs six subnets.
This number 6 is not a power of 2.
The next number that is a power of 2 is 8 (23).
We need 3 more 1’s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1’s in the subnet mask is 27 (24 + 3).
The total number of 0’s is 5 (32 - 27).

The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or
255 . 255 . 255 . 224

The number of subnets is 8.

The number of addresses in each subnet is 25 = 32 (5 is the number of 0s i.e. Host Bits).

Example
A company is granted the site address 181.56.0.0 The company needs 1000 subnets. Design the
subnets.

Solution:
The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B).
The company needs 1000 subnets.
This number is not a power of 2.
The next number that is a power of 2 is 1024 (210).
We need 10 more 1’s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1’s in the subnet mask is 26 (16 + 10).
The total number of 0’s is 6 (32 - 26).

The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
or
255 . 255 . 255 . 192

The number of subnets is 1024.

The number of addresses in each subnet is 26 = 64 (6 is the number of 0s i.e. Host Bits)

Remember, an address of all “0”s or all “1”s cannot be used in the last octet (or host portion).
All “0”s signify the Network Address and all “1”s signify the broadcast address.

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Q] Your company has the network id 165.130.0.0. You are responsible for creating subnets on the
network, and each subnet must provide at least 1000 host ids.
What subnet mask meets the requirement for the minimum number of host ids and provides the
highest number of subnets?

The given network id 165.130.0.0 is class B (Range of class B is 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255)

Default mask of Class B: 255.255.0.0
The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B).

Find Number of Host Bits :-

Formula for finding hosts is 2n -2 where n is no of host bits.
The company needs 1000 hosts.
This number is not a power of 2.
We need to find n such that 2n - 2 >= 1000
210 – 2 = 1022 which is greater than 1000.
We need 10 Host bits.
Hence total no of Hosts we get is 210-2 = 1022

Find Number of Subnets:-

No of Subnets is 2n where n is number of bits borrowed from host.
From host id (16 bits ), we have used 10 bits for hosts and borrowed remaining 6 bits for subnet.
Hence no of Subnets = 26 = 64

Find Subnet Mask :-

11111111 . 11111111 . 11111100 . 00000000
255 . 255 . 252 . 0
Subnet mask 255.255.252.0

ARROW COMPUTER ACADEMY ACN UNIT 1

Classless addressing

It replaces the older classful addressing system based on classes.

It is also known as Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR).
Classless addressing provides a more flexible and efficient way to manage IPv4 addresses compared
to the older classful system, allowing network administrators to allocate IP addresses more precisely
according to needs of user.
CIDR notation uses a prefix length (e.g., /24) to indicate the network portion of the address.
The address is written as an IPv4 address followed by a forward slash and the number of bits in the
network part of the address.

Eg:- 192.168.1.1/28

Here, subnet mask is found by putting the 28 bits out of 32 as 1, and the rest as 0.

11111111 1111 1111 11111111 1111 0000

So, the subnet mask would be 255.255.255.240.

Problem 1:-
Given the CIDR representation 20.10.30.35 / 27. Find the range of IP Addresses in the CIDR block.

Solution :-
Given CIDR representation is 20.10.30.35 / 27.
Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

00010100 . 00001010 . 00011110 . 00100011 / 27

The subnet mask "/27" means the first 27 bits are network bits, and the remaining 5 bits used for
host bits.

So,
The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

Network address = 00010100.00001010.00011110.00100000 = 20.10.30.32

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

Last IP Address = 00010100.00001010.00011110.00111111 = 20.10.30.63

Thus, Range of IP Addresses = [ 20.10.30.33 to 20.10.30.62]

Additional :-
Subnet Mask :-
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 11100000 -> Subnet Mask (255.255.255.224)

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Q) For IP Address given below, find the range of IP Addresses in the CIDR block.

1) 123.56.77.32 / 29

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

01111011 00111000 01001101 00100000

The subnet mask “/29” means the first 29 bits are network bits, and the remaining 3 bits are host
bits.

The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

Network address = 01111011 00111000 01001101 00100000 = 123.56.77.32.

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

Last IP Address = 01111011 00111000 01001101 00100111 = 123.56.77.39

Range of addresses: 123.56.77.33 to 123.56.77.38

2) 200.17.21.128 / 27

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

11001000 00010001 00010101 10000000 / 27

The subnet mask "/27" means the first 27 bits are network bits, and the remaining 5 bits are host
bits.

The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

Network address = 11001000 00010001 00010101 10000000 = 200.17.21.128.

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

Last IP Address = 11001000 00010001 00010101 10011111 = 200.17.21.159.

Range of addresses: 200.17.21.129 to 200.17.21.158

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3) 17.34.16.0/23.

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

00010001 . 00100010 . 00010000 . 00000000 / 23

The subnet mask "/23” means the first 23 bits are network bits, and the remaining 9 bits used for
host bits.
So,
The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

Network address = 00010001 . 00100010 . 00010000 . 00000000 = 17.34.16.0

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

Last IP Address = 00010001 . 00100010 . 00010001 . 11111111 = 17.34.17.255

Range of addresses: 17.34.16.1 to 17.34.17.254

Subnet Mask :-
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111110 . 00000000 -> Subnet Mask (255.255.254.0)

4) 180.34.64.64 / 30

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

10110100 00100010 01000000 01000000 / 30

The subnet mask "/30" means the first 30 bits are network bits, and the remaining 2 bits are host
bits.
The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

Network address = 10110100 00100010 01000000 01000000 = 180.34.64.64.

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

Last IP Address = 10110100 00100010 01000000 01000011 = 180.34.64.67

Range of addresses: 180.34.64.65 to 180.34.64.66

ARROW COMPUTER ACADEMY ACN UNIT 1

Q) For the IPV4 addresses given below, calculate subnet mask, broadcast addresses and number of host
possible.

i)10.0.199.237/22
ii)192.168.14.87/26

1)10.0.199.237/22

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

0000 1010 . 0000 0000 . 11000111 . 11101101 / 22

Here, subnet mask is found by putting first 22 bits as 1, and the rest as 0.

11111111 11111111 11111100 00000000 -> Subnet Mask (255.255.252.0)

The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

00001010 00000000 11000100 00000000 -> Network Address (10.0.196.0)

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

00001010 00000000 11000111 11111111 -> broadcast Address (10.0.199.255)

No of Hosts = 210 – 2 = 1022

Range of Addresses = 10.0196.1 to 10.0.199.254

2) 192 . 168 . 14 . 87 / 26

Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-

11000000 10101000 00001110 01010111 / 26

Here, subnet mask is found by putting first 26 bits as 1, and the rest as 0.

11111111 11111111 11111111 11 000000 -> Subnet Mask (255.255.255.192)

The network address can be obtained by setting the host bits to zero:

11000000 10101000 00001110 01 000000 -> Network Address (192.168.14.64)

The broadcast address can be obtained by setting the host bits to one:

11000000 10101000 00001110 01 111111 -> Broadcast Address (192.168.14.127)

Range :- { 192.168.14.65 to 192.168.14.126 }

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Supernetting

Supernetting is reverse process of subnetting, in which multiple networks are combined into a
bigger network termed as a Supernetwork or Supernet.
The supernetting is also known as route summarization and aggregation.
It results in the creation of more host addresses at the expense of network addresses, where
basically the network bits are converted into host bits.
The supernetting is performed by internet service provider rather than the normal users, to
achieve the most efficient IP address allocation.

IPv4 header:

The IP datagram contains header and data.

The header consists of around 20 to 60 bytes consists of information about routing and delivery.
The header is like an envelope i.e., it contains information about the data.
The structure of the standard format is as shown below.

The various fields are as described below:

1. Version:
This field identifies the version of IP, which contains a value 4, which indicates IP version 4. It may
contain 6 for IPv6.

2. Header length (HLEN):

This indicates the size of the header in a multiple of 4 byte words. When the header size is 20 bytes,
HLEN = 5, and HLEN = 15 when maximum size (60 bytes).

3. Service Type (Type of Service):

This field is used to define service parameters such as the priority of the datagram and the level of
reliability desired.

4. Total Length:
This field contains the total length of the IP datagram. IP datagram cannot be more than 65,536 since
this filed size is 2 bytes or 16 bits (216 = 65,536).

5. Identification:
It is a unique number assigned to each datagram sent by the source host, used for fragment
reassembly.
It is used to identify the group of fragments of a single IP datagram, for fragment reassembly.

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6. Flags:
This field corresponds to identification field. It indicates whether a datagram can be fragmented and
if fragmented, the position of the fragment.
• Bit 0: Reserved and must be zero.
• Bit 1: DF or don’t fragment. If set to one, it usually indicates that the packet should not be
fragmented by any device. If a device cannot forward the packet without fragmenting it, it
should drop it.
• Bit 2: MF or more fragments. If set to one, it indicates that there are more fragments. On the
other hand, if it is set to zero, it signifies that this is the last or only fragment in the group.

7. Fragmentation Offset:
If a datagram is fragmented, this field indicates the offset of the data in the original datagram before
segmentation. This is used while reconstructing.

8. Time to Live (TTL):

This filed is initialized by some value and decremented each time it passes through routers. If the
value becomes zero or negative, the data is not forwarded. Thus it decides the lifetime of the data.

9. Protocol:
Identifies the next-level(Top Layer) protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP) that should receive the data portion of
the packet.

10. Source address:

This field contains the 32 bit IP address of the sender.

11. Destination address:

This field contains the 32 bit IP address of the final destination.

Fragmentation

State the concept of fragmentation in IPV4.

In fragmentation, a datagram is divided into smaller units.

Most of the fields of the original header are copied into the fragment header.
The three fields’ Flags, Fragmentation offset and Total length are altered

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 IPv6 Packet Format
The Ipv6 packet format is shown in figure.

Each packet is composed of a mandatory base header followed by the payload.

The payload consists of two parts: optional extension headers and data from an upper layer.
The base header occupies 40 bytes, whereas the extension headers and data from upper layer contain
up to 65,535 bytes of information.

Base Header :
IPv6 base header has eight fields.

1. Version:
This 4 bit field defines the version number of the IP. For IPv6, the value is 0110 (6).

2. Priority
The priority field of IPv6 packet defines the priority of each packet with respect to other packets
from the same source. For example if one of two consecutive datagrams must be discarded due to
congestion, the datagram with lower priority will be discarded.

3. Flow Label
This is a 3 byte (24 bit) field.
It is used to identify all the packet in an individual flow.
A flow is uniquely identified by a combination of source address, destination address and a non-
zero flow label.
Thus, all the packets that are part of the same flow are assigned the same label by the source.

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4. Payload Length
This 2 byte field is used to tell the routers how much information a particular packet contains in its
payload. Payload is composed of Extension Headers and Upper Layer data.

5. Next Header
The next header is an 8-bit field defining the header that follows the base header in the datagram.
The next can be an extension header or header of the upper layer such as UDP or TCP.
In IPv4 this field is protocol.

6. Hop Limit
This field is used to stop packet to loop in the network infinitely. This is same as TTL in IPv4.
The value of Hop Limit field is decremented by 1 as it passes a link.
When the field reaches 0 the packet is discarded.

7. Source Address
The source address field is 16 byte (128 bit) internet address that identifies the original source of a
datagram.

8. Destination Address
The destination address field is 16 byte (128 bit) internet address that identifies the final
destination of a datagram.

Payload:
Is combination of zero or more extension headers(options) which is followed by data from other
protocols such as UDP, TCP etc.

Extension Headers
When Extension Headers are used, IPv6 Base Header’s Next Header field points to the first
Extension Header. If there is one more Extension Header, then the first Extension Header’s ‘Next-
Header’ field points to the second one, and so on.
The last Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field points to the Upper Layer Header. Thus, all the
headers points to the next one in a linked list manner.

Types of extension headers are:

1. Hop by Hop option

2. Source routing
3. Fragmentation
4. Authentication
5. Encrypted security payload
6. Destination option

1. Hop by Hop options is used when the source needs to pass information to all the routers visited
by the datagram.

2. Source routing extension header combines the concept of strict source route & the loose source
route options of IPV4.

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 3. Fragmentation Header is used for fragmenting and reassembling packets that exceed the
Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of a network path. Unlike IPv4, where routers could fragment
packets, in IPv6, only the source node can perform fragmentation.

4. Authentication header has a dual purpose: it validates the message sender & ensure the integrity
of data.

5. Encrypted security Payload is an extension that provides confidentiality & guards.

6. Destination option header is used to carry optional information that need to be processed only
by a packet's destination node. Intermediate routers are not permitted access to this information.

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 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network-layer protocol.
In order to send the data to destination, having IP address is necessary but not sufficient; we also
need the physical address of the destination machine.
ARP is used to get the physical address (MAC address) of destination machine.
ARP maps IP address to its corresponding MAC address.
It provides the interface between the IP addressing system used by IP and the Hardware addresses
used by the data link layer protocol.

How ARP Works

1. When a source device (Host A) want to communicate with another device (Host B), Host A checks
its ARP cache to find it already has a MAC Address entry for the Host B. If entry is found, it will use
that MAC Address and will not issue ARP request.

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 2. If ARP entry is not seen in the cache, Host A will generate an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
request message.

3. Host A broadcast the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) request frame on the LAN.

4. The message is received by each device on the LAN. Each device compares the Target Protocol
Address with its own IP Address. Only the device with the target IP address (Host B) will respond.
Those who do not match will drop the packet.

5. Host B generates an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) reply frame.

6. Host (B) will update its Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache, since it need to contact the Host
A.

7. Host B sends the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) reply frame including its MAC address which
will be unicast.

8. Host A will process the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) reply from Host B, store the Host B
Hardware Address as the layer 2 address of the destination.

9. Host A will update its Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache and adds the IP address to MAC
address mapping to its ARP cache for future use.

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 ARP Packet Format

Hardware Type : This 16 bits field specifies the type of hardware used for the local network, such
as Ethernet, and has a common value of 1 for Ethernet.

Protocol type: This is 16 bits field defining the protocol. The value of this field for the IPv4 protocol
is 0800 H.

Hardware length: This is an 8 bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes.

Protocol length: This is an 8 bits field defining the length of the logical address in bytes. For the IPv4
protocol, the value is 4.

Operation (request or reply): This is a 16 bits field defining the type of packet. Packet types are ARP
request (1), and ARP reply (2).

Sender hardware address: This field defines the physical address of the device sending the ARP
message.

Sender protocol address: This field defines the IP address of the device sending the ARP message.

Target hardware address: This field defines the physical address of the of target device.
For the ARP request messages, this field is all Os because the sender does not know the physical
address of the target.

Target protocol address: This field defines the IP address of the target.

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 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):

RARP is an abbreviation for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

RARP is a TCP/IP protocol that is responsible for the translation of Physical Address (e.g. – Ethernet
address) into an IP address.
This is used to obtain the IP address of a host based on its physical address.
This performs the job exactly opposite to that of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

Steps to Achieve the IP Address from RARP Server:

Below is the step by step procedure how RARP is responsible for the transaction of achieving the IP
address from RARP server –

Request

Sender H/W Sender IP Target H/W Address Target IP

own H/W (A) - own H/W (A) -

Reply RARP Server (B) -> Client (A)

Sender H/W Sender IP Target H/W Address Target IP

own H/W (B) own I/P (B) Source H/W (A) Sourcre I/P (A)

1. Source Device “Generates RARP Request Message”

The source device generates a RARP Request message.
The Source puts its own data link-layer address (Hardware Address) as both the Sender Hardware
Address and also the Target Hardware Address.
It leaves both the Sender Protocol Address (IP) and the Target Protocol Address (IP) blank.

2. Source Device “Broadcasts RARP Request Message”

The source broadcasts the RARP Request message on the local network.

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3. Local Devices “Process RARP Request Message”
The message is received by each device on the local network and processed.
Devices that are not configured to act as RARP servers ignore the message.

4. RARP Server Generates RARP Reply Message

Any device on the network that is a RARP server responds to the broadcast from the source device.
It generates a RARP Reply and sets the Sender Hardware Address and Sender Protocol Address to
its own hardware and IP address.
It then sets the Target Hardware Address to the hardware address of the original source device.
It looks up in a table the hardware address of the source, determines that device’s IP address
assignment, and puts it into the Target Protocol Address field.

5. RARP Server Sends RARP Reply Message

The RARP server sends the RARP Reply message unicast to the device looking to be configured.

6. Source Device Processes RARP Reply Message

The source device processes the reply from the RARP server.
It then configures itself using the IP address in the Target Protocol Address supplied by the RARP
server.

RARP Packet Format

RARP packet format is the same as the ARP packet, except for the operation field in either 3 or 4. ie
3-RARP request and 4-RARP reply.

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 Hardware Type: A 16-bit field indicating the type of hardware address (e.g., 1 for Ethernet).

Protocol Type: A 16-bit field specifying the protocol (e.g. 0800H for IPv4).

Hardware Address Length: An 8-bit field for the length of the physical address in bytes (e.g., 6 for
Ethernet).

Protocol Address Length: An 8-bit field for the length of the logical address in bytes (e.g., 4 for
IPv4).

Operation Field: A 16-bit field specifying the operation type.

3: Indicates a RARP request.
4: Indicates a RARP reply.

Sender Hardware Address: The MAC address of the device sending the RARP message.

Sender Protocol Address: The IP address of the sending device (often filled with zeros in a
request).

Target Hardware Address: The MAC address of the target (which is the sender's own MAC address
in a RARP request).

Target Protocol Address: The IP address of the target (which is the IP address being requested).

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