Introduction to Ecosystem

Ecosystem
-​ is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and their non-living environment interacting as a
functional unit. This interaction sustains life through the flow of
energy and the cycling of nutrients.
-​ Ecosystems contain biotic (living) factors, as well as abiotic
(nonliving) factors. Biotic factors include plants, animals and other
organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature and humidity.
-​ Understanding ecosystems is crucial for solving real-world
environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss,
and resource depletion.

A.​ Energy Flow

●​ Producers (Autotrophs)
○​ Organisms that synthesize organic molecules
from inorganic substances using light
LEVELS OF ECOSYSTEM ORGANIZATION (photoautotrophs) or chemical energy
(chemoautotrophs).
○​ First trophic level, base of food web, energy
converters.
○​ Examples: Plants, algae, cyanobacteria
●​ Consumers
○​ Organisms that obtain energy and nutrients by
feeding on other organisms or organic matter.
○​ Include herbivores, carnivores, omnivores.
○​ Examples: Deer, wolves, humans
●​ Decomposers (Saprotrophs)
1.​ Organism/Individual ○​ Microorganisms that break down dead plants,
●​ An individual living being. animals, and other organic matter into simpler
●​ Example: A single oak tree or a lion. substances.
2.​ Population ○​ They help recycle nutrients in ecosystems.
●​ A group of organisms of the same species living in a ○​ They contribute to soil fertility.
specific area. ○​ Examples: Bacteria, fungi
●​ Example: A group of deer in a forest. ●​ Heterotrophs
3.​ Community ○​ Organisms that cannot produce their own
●​ Different populations of various species living together food, relying on organic carbon from other
and interacting. organisms.
●​ Example: Deer, trees, birds, fungi in a forest ○​ All consumers and decomposers are
4.​ Ecosystem heterotrophs.
●​ The biological community plus the abiotic (nonliving) ●​ Carnivore
components. ○​ an organism that feeds primarily or exclusively
●​ Includes interactions like predation, nutrient cycling, and on other animals. Carnivores are adapted to a
energy flow. meat-based diet, with features such as sharp
5.​ Biome teeth, claws, and digestive systems
●​ A large area with similar climate, plants, and animals. specialized for processing animal protein and
●​ Examples: tundra, rainforest, desert fat. They play key roles as predators or
6.​ Biosphere scavengers in ecological food webs
●​ The global ecosystem; the sum of all ecosystems on ●​ Herbivore
Earth. ○​ An organism that obtains its energy and
nutrients exclusively or primarily from plant
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM material, including leaves, stems, seeds, and
fruits. They occupy the role of primary
consumers in ecological food chains,
transferring energy from producers (plants) to
higher trophic levels.
●​ Omnivore
○​ an organism that eats both plant and animal
matter. Omnivores have flexible feeding
behaviors and physical traits that allow them to
process a wide range of foods. This
 adaptability often gives them an advantage in ●​ Atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is
changing environments. converted into ammonia (NH₃) or
B. Biogeochemical Cycles related compounds. This is done by:
●​ Carbon Cycle 1.​ Biological fixation: Bacteria like
Rhizobium (in legume root nodules)
convert nitrogen to ammonia.
2.​ Atmospheric fixation: Lightning
converts nitrogen gas to nitrates
(NO₃⁻).
3.​ Industrial fixation: Human-made
processes (e.g., Haber-Bosch)
produce fertilizers.
b.​ Nitrification
●​ Ammonia is converted into nitrites
(NO₂⁻) and then into nitrates (NO₃⁻)
by nitrifying bacteria.
○​ Step 1: Ammonia →
Nitrite (Nitrosomonas
bacteria)
○​ Step 2: Nitrite → Nitrate
(Nitrobacter bacteria)
-​ describes the movement of carbon among the c.​ Assimilation
atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. ●​ Plants absorb nitrates from the soil
-​ Main steps in Carbon Cycle: and incorporate them into plant
a.​ Photosynthesis proteins and nucleic acids.
●​ Plants and algae absorb CO₂ from ●​ Animals get nitrogen by eating
the atmosphere and convert it into plants or other animals
glucose. d.​ Ammonification (Decay)
b.​ Respiration ●​ When plants and animals die or
●​ Organisms release CO₂ back into excrete waste, decomposer
the atmosphere by breaking down organisms (bacteria and fungi)
organic molecules for energy. convert organic nitrogen back into
c.​ Decomposition ammonia or ammonium (NH₄⁺).
●​ Decomposers break down dead e.​ Denitrification
organisms, releasing CO₂ and ●​ Denitrifying bacteria (e.g.,
methane (CH₄) into the atmosphere Pseudomonas) convert nitrates back
or soil. into nitrogen gas (N₂), releasing it
d.​ Combustion into the atmosphere.
●​ Burning of fossil fuels and biomass ●​ This closes the cycle.
releases stored carbon as CO₂.
e.​ Carbon IMPORTANCE OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE
●​ Sequestration Long-term storage of ●​ Maintains ecosystem health by recycling nitrogen.
carbon in oceans, soil, rocks (e.g., ●​ Ensures the availability of usable nitrogen for organisms.
limestone), and fossil fuels ●​ Helps in soil fertility and agriculture
●​ Nitrogen Cycle ●​ Fertilizer overuse leads to water pollution
-​ a biogeochemical process that describes how nitrogen (eutrophication).
moves through the atmosphere, living organisms, soil, ●​ Fossil fuel combustion releases nitrogen oxides,
and water. Nitrogen is essential for all living things contributing to acid rain and climate change.
because it's a key component of proteins and DNA. ●​ Phosphorus Cycle
However, most organisms cannot use nitrogen gas (N₂)
from the atmosphere directly, so it must be converted
into other forms

-​ The phosphorus cycle does not involve the atmosphere

and is slower than other cycles. It cycles mainly through
rocks, water, soil, and living organisms.
-​ -​ Main Steps in Phosphorus Cycle:
-​ Main Steps in Nitrogen Cycle: a.​ Weathering of Rocks
a.​ Nitrogen Fixation ●​ Phosphorus is mainly stored in
rocks as phosphate minerals. Over
 long periods, weathering (by rain, b.​Transpiration
wind, and temperature changes) ●​ The release of water vapor from
breaks down rocks, releasing plant leaves through small openings
phosphate ions (PO₄ ³⁻) into the soil called stomata.
and water ●​ This helps plants manage water and
b.​ Absorption by Plants nutrients and adds moisture to the
●​ Plants absorb phosphate from the air, especially in forests. This,
soil through their roots. combined with evaporation, is called
●​ Phosphate is used to build organic evapotranspiration.
molecules (nucleic acids, ATP, c.​ Condensation
phospholipids) ●​ The process where water vapor
c.​ Consumption by Animals cools and changes back into liquid
●​ Animals obtain phosphorus by droplets, forming clouds or fog.
eating plants or other animals. ●​ Condensation happens when moist
●​ Phosphorus is passed up the food air rises, cools, and reaches the dew
chain and used in body structures point, forming droplets on tiny
and biochemical processes. particles like dust or pollen.
d.​ Decomposition d.​ Precipitation
●​ When organisms excrete waste or ●​ Precipitation replenishes surface
die, decomposers (like bacteria and water (streams, lakes) and
fungi) break down the material, groundwater.
returning phosphorus to the soil or ●​ Water released from clouds due to
sediment as inorganic phosphate. gravity in the form of rain, snow,
e.​ Sedimentation sleet, or hail.
●​ When phosphorus washes into e.​ Runoff
rivers, lakes, or oceans, it sinks to ●​ Water that flows over the land’s
the bottom. surface into streams, rivers, lakes,
●​ There, it builds up in layers of mud and oceans after precipitation.
and sand. ●​ Runoff can cause erosion, transport
●​ Over a long time, this forms sediments and nutrients, and feed
phosphate-rich rocks at the bottom water bodies.
of these water bodies. f.​ Infiltration and Percolation
f.​ Geological Uplift ●​ The process by which water on the
●​ After millions of years, Earth’s forces ground surface enters the soil.
push these rocks up to form new ●​ This water helps recharge layers of
land, like mountains. rock, sand, or gravel underground
●​ When these rocks are exposed to that hold and store water (aquifers)
wind and rain, they break down. and maintain soil moisture
●​ This releases phosphorus back into IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
the soil so plants can use it again. ●​ It regulates Earth’s climate.
●​ Hydrologic (Water) Cycle ●​ It sustains ecosystems by distributing fresh
water.
●​ It influences soil formation, erosion, and
nutrient cycling.
●​ It’s vital for understanding human impacts like
deforestation, urbanization, and climate
change.
●​ Sulfur Cycle

-​ The natural, continuous movement of water on, above,

and below the surface of the Earth. It describes how
water circulates through the environment in different
forms — liquid, vapor, and ice — and connects various
parts of the Earth’s system, including the atmosphere,
land, and oceans
-​ Main Steps in Hydrologic Cycle:
a.​ Evaporation
●​ The process where liquid water from
the Earth’s surface absorbs solar
energy and changes into water -​ The sulfur cycle describes how sulfur moves through the
vapor (gas). atmosphere, living things, soil, water, and rocks.
●​ This step is driven by the sun’s -​ Sulfur is an important element because it is used by
energy and is a major way water organisms to make proteins and vitamins.
enters the atmosphere. -​ Main Steps in Sulfur Cycle:
a.​ Weathering of Rocks
●​ Sulfur is stored in sedimentary rocks
and minerals.
●​ When these rocks break down due
to weathering (from wind, rain, or
temperature changes), sulfate ions
(SO₄ ²⁻) are released into the soil
and water
b.​ Absorption by Plants
●​ Plants take up sulfate ions (SO₄ ²⁻)
from the soil through their roots.
●​ Inside the plant, sulfur is used to
build amino acids (such as cysteine
and methionine), which are essential
parts of proteins.
c.​ Consumption and Decomposition
●​ Animals eat plants and get sulfur
through the plant proteins they
consume.
●​ When plants and animals die,
decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
break down their bodies, returning
sulfur to the soil as sulfate or other
forms.
●​ This keeps sulfur cycling in the
ecosystem.
d.​ Volcanic Activity and Emissions
●​ Volcanoes, hot springs, and vents
release sulfur gases like sulfur
dioxide (SO₂) and hydrogen sulfide
(H₂S) into the atmosphere.
●​ These natural processes add sulfur
to the air, which eventually returns to
the Earth’s surface.
e.​ Atmospheric Deposition
●​ Sulfur gases like SO₂ in the air can
react with oxygen and water to form
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
●​ This comes down to the ground as
acid rain, which can make soils
more acidic and affect water bodies
and ecosystems.