UNIT- 1

Sensors/Transducers: Principles, Classification, Parameters, Characteristics, Environmental

Parameters (EP), Characterization. Electromechanical Sensors: Introduction, Resistive
Potentiometer, Strain Gauge, Resistance Strain Gauge, Semiconductor Strain Gauges -Inductive
Sensors: Sensitivity and Linearity of the Sensor –Types-Capacitive Sensors: Electrostatic
Transducer, Force/Stress Sensors Using Quartz Resonators, Ultrasonic Sensors

1.1 Introduction & Definitions

Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it may be a mechanical
system or an electronic system. A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators, transducers
and signal processing devices. The use of these elements and devices is not limited to measuring
systems. These are also used in the systems which perform specific tasks, to communicate with
the real world. The communication can be anything like reading the status of a signal from a
switch or to trigger a particular output to light up an LED.
Sensor and Transducer Definitions
The words sensors and transducers are widely used in association with measurement systems.
The sensor is an element that produces signals relating to the quantity that is being measured.
According to Instrument Society of America, “a sensor is a device that provides usable output in
response to a specified quantity which is measured.”. In simple terms, a sensor is a device that
detects changes and events in a physical stimulus and provides a corresponding output signal that
can be measured and/or recorded. Here, the output signal can be any measurable signal and is
generally an electrical quantity.
Actuators are devices that work opposite to sensors. A sensor converts a physical event into an
electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts electrical signal into a physical event. When
sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are used to perform output function in a system as
they control an external device. Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form into
another form. Generally, the energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is a term collectively
used for both sensors and actuators.
1.2 Parameters to Choose a Sensor
The following are certain features that are considered when choosing a sensor.
1. Type of Sensing: The parameter that is being sensed like temperature or pressure.
2. Operating Principle: The principle of operation of the sensor.
3. Power Consumption: The power consumed by the sensor will play an important role in
defining the total power of the system.
4. Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is a key factor in selecting a sensor.
5. Environmental Conditions: The conditions in which the sensor is being used will be a factor in
choosing the quality of a sensor.
6. Cost: Depending on the cost of application, a low-cost sensor or high cost sensor can be used.
7. Resolution and Range: The smallest value that can be sensed and the limit of measurement are
important.
8. Calibration and Repeatability: Change of values with time and ability to repeat measurements
under similar conditions.
1.3 Basic Characteristics of a Sensor or Transducer
The basic characteristics of a sensor are:
1. Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature
measurement, a thermocouple can have a range of 25 – 250 0C.
2. Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy
is expressed as percentage of full range output.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output electrical
signal. It is the ratio of change in output of the sensor to unit change in input value that causes
change in output.
4. Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a
period of time.
5. Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications
with same input value.
6. Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.
7. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of
deviation of curve of actual measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.
8. Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating
conditions.
9. Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable
value within the sensor’s specified range when approaching the point first with increasing and
then with decreasing the input parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic that a transducer has in
being unable to repeat its functionality faithfully when used in the opposite direction of
operation.
1.4 Classification of Sensors
The scheme of classifying sensors can range from very simple to very complex. The stimulus
that is being sensed is an important factor in this classification. Some of the stimuli are
1. Acoustic: Wave, spectrum and wave velocity.
2. Electric: Current, charge, potential, electric field, permittivity and conductivity.
3. Magnetic: Magnetic field, magnetic flux and permeability.
4. Thermal: Temperature, specific heat and thermal conductivity.
5. Mechanical: Position, acceleration, force, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density, momentum,
torque, shape, orientation, roughness, stiffness, compliance, crystallinity and structural.
6. Optical: Wave, wave velocity, refractive index, reflectivity, absorption and emissivity.
The sensors conversion phenomenon is also an important factor in classification of sensors.
Some of the conversion phenomena are magneto electric, thermoelectric and photoelectric.
Based on the applications of sensors, their classification can be made as follows.
(A) Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors
1. Resistive Element or Potentiometer
2. Capacitive Elements
3. Strain Gauged Element
4. Inductive Proximity Sensors
5. Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
6. Differential Transformers
7. Optical Encoders
8. Hall Effect Sensors
9. Pneumatic Sensors
10. Proximity Switches
11. Rotary Encoders
(B) Temperature Sensors
1. Thermistors
2. Thermocouple
3. Bimetallic Strips
4. Resistance Temperature Detectors
5. Thermostat
(C) Light Sensors
1. Photo Diode
2. Phototransistor
3. Light Dependent Resistor
(D) Velocity and Motion
1. Pyroelectric Sensors
2. Tachogenerator
3. Incremental encoder
(E) Fluid Pressure
1. Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
2. Tactile Sensor
3. Piezoelectric Sensors
4. Capsules, Bellows, Pressure Tubes
(F) Liquid Flow and Level
1. Turbine Meter
2. Orifice Plate and Venturi Tube
(G) IR Sensor
1. Infrared Transmitter and Receiver Pair
(H) Force
1. Strain Gauge
2. Load Cell
(I) Touch Sensors
1. Resistive Touch Sensor
2. Capacitive Touch Sensors
(J) UV Sensors
1. Ultraviolet Light Detector
2. Photo Stability Sensors
3. UV Photo Tubes
4. Germicidal UV Detectors
All the sensors can be classified into two types based on the power or signal requirement. They
are Active sensors and passive sensors.

Commonly used Sensors and Transducers

Some of the most used sensors and transducers for different stimuli (the quantity to be measured)
are
1. For sensing light, the input devices or sensors are photo diode, photo transistor, light
dependent resistor and solar cells. The output devices or actuators are LEDs, displays, lamps and
fiber optics.
2. For sensing temperature, the sensors are thermistor, thermocouple, resistance temperature
detectors and thermostat. The actuators are heaters.
3. For sensing position, the input devices are potentiometer, proximity sensor, and differential
transformer. The output devices are motor and panel meter.
4. For sensing pressure, the sensors are strain gauge and load cell. The actuators are lifts and
jacks and electromagnetic vibrations.
5. For sensing sound, the input devices are microphones and output devices are loudspeakers and
buzzers.
6. For sensing speed, the sensors used are tachogenerator and Doppler Effect sensors. The
actuators are motors and brakes.

A Simple System using Transducers

A public addressing system is an example of a system using sensors and actuators.

It consists of a microphone, an amplifier and a loudspeaker. The sensor or the device with input
function is a microphone. It senses the sound signals and transforms them into electrical signals.
The amplifier receives these electrical signals and amplifies their strength. The actuator or the
device with output function is loudspeaker. It receives the amplified electrical signals from the
amplifier and converts them back into sound signals but with more reach.

Analogue Sensors

An analogue sensor produces continuously varying output signals over a range of values. Usually
the output signal is voltage and this output signal is proportional to the measurand. The quantity
that is being measured like speed, temperature, pressure, strain, etc. are all continuous in nature
and hence they are analogue quantities. A Cadmium Sulfide Cell (CdS Cell) which is used to
measure the intensity of light is an analogue sensor. The resistance of a CdS cell varies according
to the intensity of the light incident on it. When connected to a voltage divider network, the
change in resistance can be observed through varying output voltage. In this circuit, the output
can vary from anywhere between 0 V to 5 V.
A thermocouple or a thermometer is an analog sensor. The following setup is used to measure
the temperature of the liquid in the container using a thermocouple.

The output signal of the above setup can be depicted as follows:

The output of an analogue sensor tends to change smoothly and continuously over time. Hence
the response time and accuracy of circuits employing analogue sensors is slow and less. In order
to use these signals in a microcontroller-based system, Analog to Digital converters can be used.
Analogue sensors generally require an external power supply and amplification of some form to
produce appropriate output signals. Op Amps are very useful in providing amplification and
filtering.

Digital Sensors

A digital sensor produces discrete digital signals. The output of a digital sensor has only two
states, namely ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’. ON is logic 1 and OFF is logic 0. A push button switch is the
best example of a digital sensor. In this case, the switch has only two possible states: either it is
ON when pushed or it is OFF when released or not pushed. The following setup uses a light
sensor to measure the speed and produces a digital signal.

In the above setup, the rotating disc is connected to the shaft of a motor and has number of
transparent slots. The light sensor captures the presence or absence of the light and sends logic 1
or logic 0 signal accordingly to the counter. The counter displays the speed of the disc. The
accuracy can be increased by increasing the transparent slots on the disc as it allows more counts
over the same amount of time. In general, the accuracy of a digital sensor is high when compared
to an analogue sensor. The accuracy depends on the number of bits that are used to represent the
measure and. Higher the number of bits, the greater is the accuracy.
1.5 Introduction to Electromechanical Sensors

Electromechanical sensor transforms mechanical stimulus into electrical signals. The main
electromechanical sensors are strain and pressure sensors, which correspond to two main
mechanical stimuli. According to their mechanisms, resistive and capacitive sensor attracts more
attentions due to their simple structures, mechanisms, preparation method, and low cost. Various
kinds of nanomaterials have been developed to fabricate them, including carbon nanomaterials,
metallic, and conductive polymers. They have great potentials on health monitoring, human
motion monitoring, speech recognition, and related human-machine interface applications.

1.6 Resistive Potentiometer or Transducer

The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of
transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or
dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like
temperature, displacement, vibration etc.

The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the
physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The resistive
transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary
transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer
directly transforms it into an electrical signal.

Example – The circuit of the sliding resistive transducer is shown in the figure below. The
sliding contacts are placed on the resistive element. The slider moves horizontally. The
movement of the slider changes the value of the resistive element of the transducer which is
measured by the voltage source E.
The displacement of the slider is converted into an electrical signal.

Advantages of Resistive Transducer

The following are the advantages of the resistive transducer.

1. Both the AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for the measurement of variable
resistance.

2. The resistive transducer gives the fast response.

3. It is available in various sizes and having a high range of resistance.

Working Principle of Resistive Transducer

The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the
conductor

Where

R – resistance in ohms.

A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.

L – Length of the conductor in meter square.

ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.

The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and
resistivity of the metal.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.

1. Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive
transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is
used for the measurement of displacement.

2. Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs
on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement
etc.
3. Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in
temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.

4. Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor
material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient.
The Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to
resistance.

1.7 Strain Gauge

A strain gauge is a type of electrical sensor. Its primary use is to measure force or strain.

The resistance of a strain gauge changes when force is applied, and this change will give a
different electrical output. Strain gauges use this method to measure pressure, force, weight and
tension.

When external forces are applied to a stationary object there are two forces present: stress and
strain. Stress is the resisting force of the object (like a push back) strain is the displacement and
deformation of the object and this is the force which can be measured by a strain gauge. Because
they are small and highly sensitive strain gauges can measure the contraction or expansion of an
object even if it is just a small amount when they are correctly bonded to an object or device.

Strain gauges are very thin and come in a wide range of shapes and sizes making them suitable
for a variety of applications.
The Function of a Strain Gauge

A strain gauge is used as a precautionary measure in many testing applications. Usually, when a
strain gauge gives a certain reading an alert will be triggered to inform the user that the capacity
has been reached, this means that the issue can be addressed before it becomes dangerous.

Strain gauge applications

Strain gauge technology has a huge amount of uses - almost unlimited. Strain gauges are a
fundamental sensing element and are used within many different types of sensors. They are well
used in industries such as; rail, aerospace, mechanical engineering and research and
development. Some of the applications they have been used for including.

 Stress on railway lines

 Stresses on aircraft wing deflection
 Aircraft component testing
 Rotational strain on turbines, wheels, fans, propellers and motors
 Testing ships hulls
 Testing structural components for bridges and buildings
 Automotive testing

1.8 Resistance Strain Gauge

The electrical resistance strain gauge is a resistance element which changes resistance when
subject to strain. However, it will also change resistance when subject to a temperature change.
Thus, in order to use it to determine strain, compensation has to be made for temperature effects.
One way of eliminating the temperature effect is to use a dummy strain gauge. This is a strain
gauge identical to the one under strain, the active gauge, which is mounted on the same material
as the active gauge but not subject to the strain. It is positioned close to the active gauge so that it
suffers the same temperature changes. As a result, a temperature change will cause both gauges
to change resistance by the same amount. The active gauge is mounted in one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge and the dummy gauge in an opposite arm so that the effects of temperature-
induced resistance changes cancel out.
Strain gauges are often used with other sensors such as diaphragm pressure gauges or load cells.
Temperature compensation is still required. While dummy gauges could be used, a better
solution is to use four strain gauges with two of them attached so that the applied forces put them
in tension and the other two in compression. The gauges that are in tension, gauges 1 and 3, will
increase in resistance while those in compression, gauges 2 and 4, will decrease in resistance.
The gauges are connected as the four arms of a Wheatstone bridge As all the gauges and so all
the arms of the bridge will be equally affected by any temperature changes the arrangement is
temperature compensated. The arrangement also gives a much greater output voltage than would
occur with just a single active gauge.

1.9 Semiconductor Strain Gauges

The arrangement of a semi-conductor strain gauge is as follows:

The sensing element is rectangular filament made as a wafer from silicon or geranium crystals.
To these crystals, boron is added to get some desired properties and this process is called doping
and the crystals are called doped crystals. This sensing element is attached to a plastics or
stainless steel backing. Leads made of gold are drawn out from the sensing element for
electrically connecting the strain gauge to a measuring instrument (wheat stone bridge).

There are two types of sensing element namely:

 Negative or n-type (resistance decrease with respect to tensile strain).

 Positive or P-type (resistance increase with respect to tensile strain).

Operation

With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under
study. Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the
structure will change the dimension. As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain
gauge will also undergo change in both in length and cross-section (that is, it strained). When the
sensing element (crystal) of the semiconductor strain gauge is strained, its resistivity changes
contributing to a change in the resistance of the strain gauge. The change in the resistance of the
strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance of the strain
gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and a measure of the
applied force when calibrated.
Advantages of semi-conductor Strain gauges

 These gauges have high gauge factor and hence they can measure very small
strains.
 They can be manufactured to very small sizes.
 They have an accuracy of 2.3%
 They have excellent hysteresis characteristics.
 They have a good frequency of response.
 They have good fatigue life.

Limitation of semi-conductor Strain gauges

 These gauges are brittle and hence they cannot be used for measuring large strain.
 The gauge factor is not constant.
 These gauges have poor linearity.
 These gauges are very costly and are difficult to be bonded onto the structure under
study.

1.10 Inductive Sensors: Sensitivity and Linearity of the Sensor

An inductive sensor is a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect or
measure objects. An inductor develops a magnetic field when a current flows through it;
alternatively, a current will flow through a circuit containing an inductor when the magnetic field
through it changes. This effect can be used to detect metallic objects that interact with a magnetic
field. Nonmetallic substances such as liquids or some kinds of dirt do not interact with the
magnetic field, so an inductive sensor can operate in wet or dirty conditions.

The inductive sensor is based on Faraday's law of induction. The temporal variations of the
Magnetic Flux through an N turn’s circuit will induce a voltage which follows:
This can be expressed in a simpler way:

By assuming that the induced magnetic field B is homogeneous over a section S (the Magnetic
flux will be expressed).

One form of inductive sensor drives a coil with an oscillator. A metallic object approaching the
coil will alter the inductance of the coil, producing a change in frequency or a change in the
current in the coil. These changes can be detected, amplified, compared to a threshold and use to
switch an external circuit. The coil may have a ferromagnetic core to make the magnetic field
more intense and to increase the sensitivity of the device. A coil with no ferromagnetic core
("air core") can also be used, especially if the oscillator coil must cover a large area. Another
form of inductive sensor uses one coil to produce a changing magnetic field, and a second coil
(or other device) to sense the changes in the magnetic field produced by an object, for example,
due to eddy currents induced in a metal object.

1.11 Capacitive Sensors: Electrostatic Transducer

A transducer consisting of a fixed electrode and a movable electrode, charged electrostatically in

opposit e polarity; motion of the movable electrode changes the capacitance between the
electrodes and thereby makes the applied voltage change in proportion to the amplitude of the
electrode's motion known as condenser transducer.

Principle of electrostatic sensor detection around electrified object, an electric field that is
proportional in strength to the amount of charge is produced. Electrostatic sensors detect the
intensity of this electric field and calculate it as electric potential.

Detection of electric field

When a detection electrode is brought close to an electrified body, an electric charge that is
proportional to the intensity of the electric field is induced in the detection electrode due to
"electrostatic induction”. The electrostatic sensor opens and closes a tuning-fork vibrating plate
called a chopper in front of the detection electrode in order to cancel out DC noise and perform
higher precision measurement. The sensor detects the intensity of the electric field by receiving
the induced electric charge as a communication signal.

Conversion to electric potential

Electric potential is proportional to the intensity of the electric field, but the intensity of the
electric field gets smaller as it gets further away from an electrified object. Therefore, the
electrostatic sensor sets a distance between the electrified object and the sensor using a controller
and a corrected calculation of the electric potential is performed.

Characteristics based on the principle of electrostatic sensor detection

Since an electric field relies on the measurement distance, you need to fix the sensor at a set
distance in order to perform a high precision measurement. The electric field that is produced by
an electrified object spreads concentrically out from the electrified object. Therefore, the
electrostatic sensor that detects the electric field measures a wider range as the measurement
distance increases. Moreover, the existing electrostatic sensors and electrometers have the same
range characteristics since they all detect the electric field.

1.12 Force/Stress Sensors Using Quartz Resonators

Quartz Force Sensors are recommended for dynamic force applications. They are not used as
'load cells' for static applications. Measurements of dynamic oscillating forces, impactor high
speed compression/tension under varying conditions may require sensors with special
capabilities. Fast response, ruggedness, stiffness comparable to solid steel, extended ranges and
the ability to also measure quasi-static forces are standard features associated with PCB quartz
force sensors.

The following information presents some of the design and operating characteristics of PCB
force sensors to help you better understand how they function, which in turn, will "help you
make better dynamic measurements". Following Figure illustrates the cross-section of a typical
quartz force sensor. This sensor is a General Purpose 208 Series compression/tension model with
built-in electronics.
 Compression-Tension-Impact
When force is applied to this sensor, the quartz crystals generate an electrostatic charge
proportional to the input force. This output is collected on the electrodes sandwiched between the
crystals and is then either routed directly to an external charge amplifier or converted to a low
impedance voltage signal within the sensor. Both these modes of operation will be examined in
the following sections.

1.13 Ultrasonic Sensors

An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that measures the distance of a target object by
emitting ultrasonic sound waves and converts the reflected sound into an electrical signal.
Ultrasonic waves travel faster than the speed of audible sound (i.e. the sound that humans can
hear). Ultrasonic sensors have two main components: the transmitter (which emits the sound
using piezoelectric crystals) and the receiver (which encounters the sound after it has travelled to
and from the target).

In order to calculate the distance between the sensor and the object, the sensor measures the time
it takes between the emission of the sound by the transmitter to its contact with the receiver. The
formula for this calculation is D = ½ T x C (where D is the distance, T is the time, and C is the
speed of sound ~ 343 meters/second). For example, if a scientist set up an ultrasonic sensor
aimed at a box and it took 0.025 seconds for the sound to bounce back, the distance between the
ultrasonic sensor and the box would be:

D = 0.5 x 0.025 x 343

or about 4.2875 meters.

Ultrasonic sensors are used primarily as proximity sensors. They can be found in
automobile self-parking technology and anti-collision safety systems. Ultrasonic sensors are also
used in robotic obstacle detection systems, as well as manufacturing technology. In comparison
to infrared (IR) sensors in proximity sensing applications, ultrasonic sensors are not as
susceptible to interference of smoke, gas, and other airborne particles (though the physical
components are still affected by variables such as heat). Ultrasonic sensors are also used as level
sensors to detect, monitor, and regulate liquid levels in closed containers (such as vats in
chemical factories). Most notably, ultrasonic technology has enabled the medical industry to
produce images of internal organs, identify tumors, and ensure the health of babies in the womb.