What Is weather?

Weather is the state of atmosphere at a particular place over a specific time period. pressure,
temperature, precipitation (rainfall), cloud cover, humidity, and wind, are all states of
atmosphere.

What is climate?
Climate is the average state of atmosphere in a specific region for a long period of time usally
30+ years.

Climate change refers to the long term shift in the earths weather patterns, primarily caused
by human activities such as burning fossil fuels which releases excess greenhouse gasses into
the atmosphere.

Evidence
Physical Indicators of a Changing Climate
 Rising Temperatures:

Global land and ocean temperatures are steadily increasing, with record-high surface
air temperatures and more hot days per year.
 Melting Ice:
Glaciers are retreating, ice sheets are shrinking, and Arctic sea ice cover has dramat -
ically decreased.
 Rising Sea Levels:
The expansion of warmer ocean water and meltwater from ice sheets contribute to a
significant global sea level rise.
 Ocean Changes:
Oceans are absorbing more heat, leading to increased sea surface temperatures and
more frequent marine heatwaves. They are also experiencing increased ocean acidi-
fication and reduced oxygen levels.
 Permafrost Thaw:
Melting permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, further contributing
to warming.
Extreme Weather Events
 Increased Intensity and Frequency:

The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves,

droughts, wildfires, and floods, are increasing.
 Changes in Rainfall:
Patterns of rainfall are changing, affecting ecosystems and water resources.
Atmospheric and Biological Indicators
 Increased Greenhouse Gases:
 Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels have risen sharply since the Industrial Re -
volution, reaching levels not seen in at least 800,000 years.
 Chemical Fingerprints:
The chemical signature of carbon in the atmosphere indicates an organic, or fossil
fuel, origin for the excess CO2, not volcanic activity.
 Shifting Species Ranges and Timing:
Warming temperatures and altered precipitation patterns are changing the geograph-
ical ranges of plants and animals and altering the timing of their life cycles.
How We Know
 Scientific Data:

Data is collected from various sources, including ice cores that preserve atmospheric
samples, modern instruments, and satellites that monitor Earth's surface and atmo -
sphere.
 Rate of Change:
The rate of climate change observed since the mid-20th century is unprecedented
over thousands of years, indicating a shift from historical natural climate cycles.
 Scientific Consensus:
An overwhelming majority of climate experts agree that the Earth is warming, and
human activities are the primary cause.

Temperature and pressure

The relationship between temperature and pressure is that they are directly proportional for
a gas at constant volume.
 Temperature is kinetic energy
 Increase in temperature=faster molecules
 Faster molecules=high collisions
 High collisions=high pressure
Gay lussac law
P1/T1=P2/T2
Global air circulation
Global air circulation is the large-scale movement of air that helps to distribute heat and
moisture around the Earth. It’s driven mainly by differences in temperature and pressure,
caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the Sun.

1. Uneven heating on earths surface

2. Formation of pressure belts
3. Convection currents and cells
4. Wind belts
5. Coriolis effect
 6. Importance of global air circulation
https://chatgpt.com/c/68caac97-221c-8325-b949-ad6bbe1bad26
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fd03fBRsuU

Reasons for climate change

-natural causes
1. solar variability- energy recived from the sun changes due to solar cycle
2. Volcanic eruptions- releases ash that blocks sunlight causing temporary cooling, but also
causes the sun light to be traped inside the atmosphere
3. oceanic currents and cycles- large scale ocean patterns like the El niño and La niño affect
temperature and weather globally.
4. Earths internal processes- convection currents
5. changes in greenhouse concentration.

1. Milankovitch Cycles

Milankovitch cycles are long-term variations in Earth's orbit and tilt that affect climate over
tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. They are named after Milutin Mil-
ankovitch, a Serbian mathematician. These cycles influence how much solar energy Earth re-
ceives, leading to natural climate changes like ice ages.

There are three main types of Milankovitch cycles:

1. Eccentricity (100,000-year cycle)

o The shape of Earth’s orbit changes from almost circular to slightly elliptical.
o A more elliptical orbit means greater variation in solar radiation, which can
trigger ice ages.
2. Axial Tilt (Obliquity) (41,000-year cycle)
o Earth’s tilt varies between about 22.1° and 24.5°.
o A greater tilt causes more extreme seasons (hotter summers, colder winters).
o A smaller tilt leads to milder seasons, favoring ice sheet formation.
3. Precession (26,000-year cycle)
o Earth wobbles on its axis like a spinning top.
o This changes the timing of seasons relative to Earth's orbit, affecting climate
patterns like monsoons.

✅ Impact: These cycles have caused natural ice ages and warm periods throughout Earth's
history.

2. Carbon-Oxygen Cycle

The Carbon-Oxygen cycle (often called the Carbon Cycle) describes the movement of carbon
and oxygen through Earth's atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. This cycle
is crucial because carbon and oxygen are essential for life and climate regulation.
Key Processes:

1. Photosynthesis
o Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere and water, using
sunlight to produce glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).
o Reaction:

❑
6 C O2 +6 H 2 O→ C 6 H 12 O6 +6 O2

2. Respiration
o Animals and plants use glucose and oxygen to produce energy, CO₂, and wa-
ter.
o Reaction:

C 6 H 12 O6+ 6 O2 → 6 C O2 +6 H 2 O+ Energy

3. Decomposition
o Dead organisms are broken down by decomposers, releasing CO₂ back into
the atmosphere.
4. Combustion of Fossil Fuels
o Burning coal, oil, or natural gas releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, in-
creasing CO₂ levels.
5. Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange
o Oceans absorb CO₂ from the air and release it back depending on temperature
and currents.

✅ Impact: This cycle maintains a balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide, supporting life and
regulating Earth's climate naturally. Disruption (like excess fossil fuel burning) contributes to
global warming.

1. Earth’s Heat Budget

The Earth’s heat budget is the balance between the incoming energy from the Sun and the
outgoing energy back to space.
For Earth’s climate to remain stable, the amount of energy coming in must equal the amount
going out.

Main Components:

1. Incoming Solar Radiation (100%)

o About 30% is reflected back to space by clouds, dust, and Earth’s surface (this
is called albedo).
o About 70% is absorbed:
 Atmosphere absorbs ~20%.
 Earth’s surface (land + oceans) absorbs ~50%.
2. Outgoing Radiation
o Earth re-radiates absorbed heat as infrared radiation (longwave radiation).
o Some escapes directly to space.
 o Some is trapped by greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, H₂O vapor, N₂O) → keep-
ing Earth warm (the Greenhouse Effect).

Importance:

 If more energy is absorbed than released, Earth warms.

 If more energy is released than absorbed, Earth cools.
 This balance controls Earth’s climate and temperature.

2. Human Activities Inducing Global Warming

Human actions have disrupted the natural heat budget by increasing greenhouse gases.

Major Human Activities:

1. Burning Fossil Fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)

o Releases large amounts of CO₂.
o Main driver of enhanced greenhouse effect.
2. Deforestation
o Trees absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis. Cutting them reduces carbon ab-
sorption.
3. Agriculture
o Rice paddies and livestock release methane (CH₄), a strong greenhouse gas.
o Use of fertilizers releases nitrous oxide (N₂O).
4. Industrial Processes
o Factories emit CO₂ and other gases (e.g., cement production releases CO₂).
5. Waste Generation
o Landfills produce methane as organic matter decomposes without oxygen.

Consequences of Human-Induced Global Warming:

 Rising global temperatures.

 Melting glaciers and polar ice → sea level rise.
 Stronger and more frequent extreme weather events (heatwaves, storms, droughts).
 Changes in ecosystems and biodiversity loss.
 Ocean acidification due to CO₂ dissolving in seawater.

🌍 In short:

 The heat budget explains how Earth maintains temperature balance.

 Humans are upsetting this balance by adding greenhouse gases, causing more energy
to be trapped, which leads to global warming.

Direct Consequences of Climate Change

These are immediate, physical effects caused by rising global temperatures:

On Environments

 Glacial melting & sea level rise → loss of coastal land, saltwater intrusion.
 More frequent extreme weather (heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts).
 Ocean warming & acidification → coral bleaching, loss of marine biodiversity.
 Desertification in dry regions.

On Societies

 Heat stress → increased health risks (heatstroke, cardiovascular problems).

 Flooding of coastal cities → loss of homes, infrastructure, and displacement.
 Crop failure due to droughts and unpredictable rainfall.
 Water scarcity in already arid areas.

🌐 Indirect Consequences of Climate Change

These result from the ripple effects of the direct impacts:

On Environments

 Loss of biodiversity → species extinction, disrupted ecosystems.

 Changing migration patterns of animals.
 Forest dieback → reduced carbon absorption, worsening warming.

On Societies

 Food insecurity → higher food prices, malnutrition.

 Climate refugees → forced migration, social tensions.
 Economic damage → infrastructure destruction, reduced tourism, loss of livelihoods.
 Conflict over resources → competition for water, fertile land, and energy.
 Spread of diseases → warmer conditions allow malaria, dengue, and other vector-
borne diseases to expand.

✨ Quick Summary

 Direct consequences = physical, immediate (sea level rise, heatwaves, storms, glacier
melting).
 Indirect consequences = social, economic, and ecological ripple effects (migration,
conflicts, food insecurity, biodiversity loss).