UNIT- 4

COURSE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE: The main objective of the course is to understand

the various production or manufacturing processes which could be done in real time, appreciate
the importance of basic principles of Manufacturing Technology.
COURSE OUTCOMES: After completion of the course students are the able to
CO4: Design and fabrication of engineering components using different manufacturing
processes.
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs):
To build a professional career and pursue higher studies with sound knowledge in
PEO 1
Mathematics, Science and Mechanical Engineering.
To inculcate strong ethical values and leadership qualities for graduates to become
PEO 2
successful in multidisciplinary activities.
PEO 3 To develop inquisitiveness towards good communication and lifelong learning.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs):
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO 1 fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse complex
PO 2 engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
PO 3
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
PO 4 research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO 5 modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
PO 6 assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
PO 7 engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
PO 8
and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
PO 9
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
PO 10
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
PO 11 engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
PO 12 engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs):
To apply the principles of thermal sciences to design and develop various thermal
PSO 1
systems.
To apply the principles of manufacturing technology, scientific management towards
PSO 2 improvement of quality and optimization of engineering systems in the design, analysis
and manufacturability of products.
To apply the basic principles of mechanical engineering design for evaluation of
PSO 3 performance of various systems relating to transmission of motion and power,
conservation of energy and other process equipment.

SYLLABUS
METAL FORMING PROCESSES: Nature of plastic deformation, Hot working and Cold
working, Principles of Rolling fundamentals – Theory of rolling, Types of Rolling mills,
Drawing and its types – Wire drawing and Tube drawing – Coining – Hot and cold spinning
processes.
FORGING: Principles of forging – Tools and dies – Types of forging operations – Smith
forging, Drop Forging and Machine forging, forging defects, Causes and remedies.
Applications of forming and forging processes.

Mechanical working of a metal is simply plastic deformation performed to change dimensions,

properties and surface condition.
In other words, metals are mechanically worked for three reasons:
1. To produce a particular shape or form not readily obtained by other means, e.g., a
crankshaft.
2. To break down the cast structure and improve the properties of the metal.
3. To impart a desirable dimension and surface finish.
A large quantity of any specific shape must generally be required to justify its essentially
complete production by mechanical working; otherwise, where possible the shape will be
machined out or constructed from standard wrought stock.
The predominance of mechanical working as a means of fabrication is often unappreciated
until it is realized that it embraces forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing, pressing etc.
Mechanical working of metals may either be
I. Hot working
II. Cold working
Plastic deformation of a metal above its recrystallization temperature, but below the melting or
burning point is called Hot working. Whereas plastic deformation of a metal below its
recrystallization temperature is known as Cold working.
HOT WORKING:
Hot working is defined as the working of metals at temperatures such that recrystallization
occurs continuously during working. In this process, metals are worked above their
recrystallization temperatures. Due to working above the recrystallization temperature,
recrystalization takes place simultaneously during working. Therefore, it may be appropriate
to state that hot working is equivalent to cold working and annealing. However, time rate and
rate factors during hot working can cause appreciable difference in structure e.g. a rapid
working just above the recrystallization temperature will produce structure typical of old
worked materials. Also, the structure and properties of hot worked metals are generally not so
uniform over the cross sections as compared to the metals which have been cold woked and
annealed. Since the deformation is always greater in the surface layers, the surface will have a
finer recrystallized grin size as compared to the grain size in the centre. Also, the centre has a
higher temperature and since it cools slowly, the grain growth occurs in the centre.
In hot working, practically all the energy gets transformed into heat. If the surface to volume
ratio of the component being worked is large, heat is lost to the surrounding at a rate faster than
the rate at which it is generated in the component and cooling will occur during working.
However, large sections with relatively small surface to volume ratio may become appreciably
hotter and may even partially melt, if deformed too rapidly. This factor limits the maximum
working rate. The minimum working rate depends on the extent of strain hardening that occurs
due to decrease of temperature because of more heat losses during working.

Effect on Properties:
1. Mechanical properties, especially elongation, reduction of area and Izod values are
improved, but fibre and directional properties are produced. Residual stresses in metals
are not introduced due to hot working.
2. If properly carried out, hot work does not affect tensile strength, hardness, corrosion
resistance, etc.
3. Hot work promotes uniformly of materials by facilitating diffusion of alloy constituents
and breaks up brittle films of hard constituents or impurity, e.g. cementite in steel.

Purpose of Hot Working:

1. To shape metal into useful objects.
2. To improve the properties of the metal, as compared to those in cast condition.
3. To produce raw material to be used for subsequent cold working operations.

Limitations:
1. Oxide forms rapidly on metal surface.
2. Surface scaling of the product.
3. Surface decarburization.
4. The above mentioned 1 and 2 limitations and the volumetric expansion of the stock
during heating and its contraction during cooling preclude the attainment of high degree
of surface finish or the extreme accuracies that are obtained by cold working.

Hot Working Processes:

Commonly employed hot working processes are:
I. Forging
II. Rolling
III. Pipe welding
IV. Extrusion
V. Spinning
VI. Hot piercing and rolling etc..

Precautions in hot working:

Grain growth takes place whenever the working temperature of the metal is above the
recrystallization temperature. Therefore, to minimize large grains in a wrought structure, the
final working operation should take place below the recrystallization temperature.

COLD WORKING:
Cold working means the working of metals below their recrystallization temperature. Due to
cold working of metals, their yield and ultimate tensile strength and hardness increases, but the
ductility decreases. We already know that the above changes during cold working are the result
of strain hardening which occur due to multiplication of dislocations according to frank-reed
source. During plastic deformation there is a continuous increase in dislocation density and the
stress necessary to move the dislocations continuously increases.
This method can be used for any metal or alloy, if the metal or alloy can be cold worked i.e.
the method is applicable only for ductile metals. All pure metals and some of the alloys have
fairly good ductility and malleability and hence can be cold worked. Amongst the steels, low
carbon steels and mild steels can be cold worked to a substantial degree. Tor steel used as
reinforcing bars for concrete is cold twisted to increase the yield strength. The main
disadvantage off cold working is the accompanying decrease in ductility. Cold working is also
detrimental as it raises the ductile – brittle trasition temperature of steels.

Effect on Properties:
1. Increases
i. Ultimate tensile strength
ii. Yield strength
iii. Hardness
iv. Fatigue strength
v. Residual stresses
2. Decreases
a. % elongation
b. Reduction of area
c. Impact strength
d. Resistance to corrosion
e. Ductility
3. Good surface finish
4. Close sizes i.e. dimensional control
5. Close control of properties
6. No heating is required.
7. Directional properties can be imparted
8. Spring back is an ever – present phenomenon in cold working.
9. For relatively ductile metals, cold working is often more economical than hot working.

Purpose of Cold Working:

1. Cold working is widely applied as a forming process for finish metal products.
2. To obtain thinner materials.
3. To obtain better surface finish.
4. To obtain greater dimensional accuracy.
5. To obtain increased mechanical properties.
Limitations:
1. The cold worked part possesses less ductility.
2. Imparted directional properties may be detrimental.
3. Strain hardening occurs.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale free before cold working.
5. Higher forces are required for deformation than those in hot working.
6. More powerful and heavier equipments are required for cold working.
Cold Working Processes:
Commonly employed cold working processes are:
I. Rolling
II. Extrusion
III. Pressing and deep drawing
IV. Stamping
V. Squeezing
VI. Bending
VII. Shearing etc.

Precautions in Cold Working:

1. Excessive cold working leads to crack formation and propagation and should therefore
be avoided.
2. Residual stresses developed due to inhomogeneous deformation cause warping or
distortion when the part is released from the tooling and during subsequent machining.
Therefore, magnitude and distribution of residual stresses should be controlled.
3. Orange – peel and stretcher strains are material related types of roughness defects found
on surfaces not touched by tooling. Orange peel can be avoided by using fine grained
sheets; stretcher strain is minimized by temper rolling or stretching the strip to prevent
localized yielding.

ROLLING:
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a long
workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls, as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1
Most rolling is carried out by hot working, called hot rolling, owing to the large amount of
deformation required. Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual stresses, and its properties
are isotropic. Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held to close
tolerances, and the surface has a characteristic oxide scale. Steelmaking provides the most
common application of rolling operations.
Figure 2 illustrates the sequence of steps in a steel rolling mill to show the variety of products
made. Similar steps occur in other basic metal industries. The work starts out as a cast steel
ingot that has just solidified. While it is still hot, the ingot is placed in a furnace where it remains
for many hours until it has reached a uniform temperature throughout, so that the metal will
flow consistently during rolling. For steel, the desired temperature for rolling is around 1200
0
C (2200 0F). The heating operation is called soaking, and the furnaces in which it is carried
out are called soaking pits. From soaking, the ingot is moved to the rolling mill, where it is
rolled into one of three intermediate shapes called blooms, billets, or slabs, as shown in figure
2.

Figure 2
NOMENCLATURE OF ROLLED PRODUCTS:
The following nomenclature is in common usage:
(i) Blooms: It is the first product obtained from the breakdown of Ingots. A bloom has a cross-
section ranging in size from 150 mm square to 250 mm square or sometimes 250 × 300 mm
rectangle.
(ii) Billet: A billet is the next product rolled from a bloom. Billets vary from 50 mm square to
125 mm square.
(iii) Slab: Slab is of rectangular cross-section with thickness ranging from 50 to 150 mm and
is available in lengths up to 112 metres.
(iv) Plate: A plate is generally 5 mm or thicker and is 1.0 or 1.25 metres in width and 2.5
metres in length.
(v) Sheet: A sheet is up to 4 mm thick and is available in same width and length as a plate.
(vi) Flat: Flats are available in various thickness and widths and are long strips of material of
specified cross-section.
(vii) Foil: It is a very thin sheet.
(viii) Bar: Bars are usually of circular cross-section and of several metres length. They are
common stock (raw material) for capstan and turret lathes.
(ix) Wire: A wire is a length (usually in coil form) of a small round section; the diameter of
which specifies the size of the wire.
Flat rolling and its analysis:
Flat rolling is illustrated in Figures 1. It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and plates
work parts of rectangular cross section in which the width is greater than the thickness. In flat
rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its thickness is reduced by an amount
called the draft:
D=h0 – hf =2R (1-cosα)
Where d = draft, mm (in); h0= starting thickness, mm (in); and hf = final thickness, mm (in).
R = roll radius in mm and (α) = bite angle in degree.
Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock thickness, called the reduction
𝑑
r=ℎ
𝑜

Where r = reduction.
When a series of rolling operations is used, reduction is taken as the sum of the drafts divided
by the original thickness. In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually increases work
width. This is called spreading, and it tends to be most pronounced with low width-to-thickness
ratios and low coefficients of friction, so the volume of metal exiting the rolls equals the volume
entering
ho wo Lo = hf w f Lf
Where wo and wf are the before and after work widths, mm (in); and Lo and Lf are the before
and after work lengths, mm (in). Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow must
be the same, so the before and after velocities can be related:
ho wo vo = hf w f vf
Where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work. The surface speed of the
rolls is Vr the velocity of the strip increases from its entry value of VO as it moves through the
roll gap; the velocity of the strip is highest at the exit from the roll gap and is denoted as Vf .
The metal accelerates in the roll gap in the same manner as an incompressible fluid flowing
through a converging channel.

Figure 3
Because the surface speed of the rigid roll is constant, there is relative sliding between the roll
and the strip along the arc of contact in the roll gap, L. At one point along the contact length
(called the neutral point or no-slip point) the velocity of the strip is the same as that of the roll.
To the left of this point, the roll moves faster than the strip; to the right of this point, the strip
moves faster than the roll. Consequently, the frictional forces-which oppose motion between
two sliding bodies-act on the strip as shown above. On either side of this point, slipping and
friction occur between roll and work. The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can
be measured by means of the forward slip, a term used in rolling that is defined:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑟
s=
𝑣𝑟

Where s = forward slip; vf = final (exiting) work velocity, m/s (ft/sec); and vr = roll speed, m/s
(ft/sec).
The rolls pull the material into the roll gap through a net frictional force on the material. Thus,
the net frictional force must be to the right in Fig. 3. This also means that the frictional force to
the left of the neutral point must be higher than the friction force to the right. Although friction
is necessary for rolling materials (just as it is in driving a car on a road), energy is dissipated in
overcoming friction. Thus, increasing friction also increases rolling forces and power
requirements. Thus, a compromise is made in practice: Low and controlled friction is induced
in rolling through the use of effective lubricants. The maximum possible draft is defined as in
equation below; it can be shown that this quantity is a function of the roll radius, R, and the
coefficient of friction, μ, between the strip and the roll by the following relationship:
dmax = µ2R
Thus, as expected, the higher the friction and the larger the roll radius, the greater the maximum
possible draft becomes. Note that this situation is similar to the use of large tires (high R) and
rough treads (high, μ.) on farm tractors and off-road earthmoving equipment, thus permitting
the vehicles to travel over rough terrain without skidding.
Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication, work material, and working
temperature. In cold rolling, the value is around 0.1; in warm working, a typical value is around
0.2; and in hot rolling, m is around 0.4. Hot rolling is often characterized by a condition called
sticking, in which the hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc.
This condition often occurs in the rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys. When sticking
occurs, the coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7. The consequence of sticking is that the
surface layers of the work are restricted to move at the same speed as the roll speed vr ; and
below the surface, deformation is more severe in order to allow passage of the piece through
the roll gap.
The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on before and after stock thicknesses. In
equation form,
ℎ𝑜
ɛ = ln
ℎ𝑓

Shape rolling:
In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured cross section. Products made by shape
rolling include construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and Uchannels; rails for railroad
tracks; and round and square bars and rods (see Figure 4). Most of the principles that apply in
flat rolling are also applicable to shape rolling. Shaping rolls are more complicated; and the
work, usually starting as a square shape. Designing the sequence of intermediate shapes and
corresponding rolls is called roll-pass design. Its goal is to achieve uniform deformation
throughout the cross section in each reduction.

Figure 4
Various Rolling Processes:
Several other bulk deformation processes use rolls to form the work part. The operations
include thread rolling, ring rolling, and roll piercing etc…
Transverse rolling or Roll forging:
In this operation (also called cross rolling), the cross section of a round bar is shaped by passing
it through a pair of rolls with profiled grooves (Fig. 5). Roll forging typically is used to produce
tapered shafts and leaf springs, table knives, and hand tools; it also may be used as a preliminary
forming operation, to be followed by other forging processes.

Figure 5
Skew Rolling.
A process similar to roll forging is skew rolling, typically used for making ball bearings (Fig.
6). Round wire or rod is fed into the roll gap, and roughly spherical blanks are formed
continuously by the action of the rotating rolls.

Figure 6
Ring Rolling:
In ring rolling, a thick ring is expanded into a large diameter thinner one. The ring is placed
between two rolls, one of which is driven while the other is idle (Fig. 7). Its thickness is reduced
by bringing the rolls closer together as they rotate. Since the volume of the ring material
remains constant during plastic deformation (volume constancy), the reduction in ring
thickness results in an increase in its diameter. Typical applications of ring rolling are large
rings for rockets and turbines.
 Figure 7
Thread Rolling:
Thread rolling is a cold-forming process by which straight or tapered threads are formed on
round rods or wire. The threads are formed on the rod or wire with each stroke of a pair of flat
reciprocating dies (Fig.8). In another method, threads are formed with rotary dies (Fig. 9), The
thread-rolling process has the advantages of generating threads with good strength (due to cold
working) and without any loss of material (scrap). The surface finish produced is very smooth,
and the process induces compressive residual stresses on the workpiece surfaces, thus
improving fatigue life.

Figure 8

Figure 9

Rotary Tube Piercing or Roll Piercing:

Ring rolling is a specialized hot working process for making seamless thick-walled tubes. It
utilizes two opposing rolls, and hence it is grouped with the rolling processes. The process is
based on the principle that when a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its circumference, as
in Figure 10(a), high tensile stresses are developed at its centre. If compression is high enough,
an internal crack is formed. In roll piercing, this principle is exploited by the setup shown in
Figure 10(b).
 Figure 10

Roll bending:
Because of the forces acting on them, rolls undergo changes in shape during rolling. Just as a
straight beam deflects under a transverse load, roll forces tend to bend the rolls elastically
during rolling (Fig.11). As expected, the higher the elastic modulus of the roll material, the
smaller the roll deflection. As a result of roll bending, the rolled strip tends to be thicker at its
centre than at its edges (crown). The usual method of avoiding this problem is to grind the rolls
in such a way that their diameter at the centre is slightly larger than their edges (camber).

Figure 11
The results of insufficient camber are shown in Figure 12. The thicker centre requires the edges
to be elongated more. This can cause edge wrinkling or warping of a plate. The centre is left in
residual tension and centre cracking can occur.
 Figure 12 Possible effects of insufficient camber (a): edge wrinkling (b), warping
(c), centreline cracking (d), and (e) residual stresses.
If the rolls are over-cambered, as shown in Figure 13, the residual stress pattern is the opposite.
Centre line compression and edge tension may cause edge cracking, lengthwise splitting, and
a wavy centre.

Fig 13 Effects of over-cambering (a): wavy centre (b), centreline splitting (c), edge cracking
(d), and (e) residual stresses.
TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS:

• Two-High Rolling Mills

• Three-High Rolling Mills
• Four High Rolling Mills
• Tandem Rolling Mills
• Cluster Rolling Mills
Two-High Rolling Mills:
This type of mill has two types. Those are:

• Reversing Mills
• In reversing Mills
In this rolling mill, there are two rolls used.

Two High Reversing Mill:

In this type of mill, the rollers are both adjustable. In these mills, rotation of those two rolls is
made in two different directions. In this operation, the metal is passed between two rollers that
rotate at the same speed but it is in the opposite direction. It is used in slabbing, plumbing, rail,
plate roughing work and many other areas. As there is the need for a reversible drive, this mill
is cheaper compared to the others.

Two High Non-Reversing Mills:

In these mills, two rolls continuously revolve in the same direction and we can’t reverse the
direction of the rollers. In this operation, the motive power is less costly.

Three-High Rolling Mills:

In this mill, the three rolls stand in parallel one by others. The rolls are rotating in opposite
directions. In this mill, between the first and the second rolls, the material passes. If the second
roll rotates in a direction, then the bottom roll rotates in another direction. The material is rolled
both in forward and return in three high rolling mills.
At first, it passes forward through the last and second roller and then comes back through the
first and second roller. In that mill, the thickness of the material is reduced and being uniform
by each pass. Here transition system and a motor are needed which is less powerful.

Four High Rolling Mills:

In this type of mill, there are four parallel rolls one by another. In this operation, the rotation
of the first and the fourth rolls take place in the opposite direction of the second and the third
rolls. The second and third rolls are smaller to provide rigidity in necessity. So those are known
as back up rolls. It is used in the hot rolling process of the Armor and in the cold rolling process
of sheets, strips, and plates.

Tandem Rolling Mills:

In this type of rolling mill, there are two or more sets of rolls in the parallel alignment which
make the continuous passes and successively decrease the thickness and make that uniform.
Cluster Rolling Mills:

In this type of rolling mill, there are two basic roles that are backed up by two or more rolls
which are bigger than those two basic rolls. These backed up rolls give more pressure to the
basic rolls to heavily press the strip.

DEFECTS OF ROLLING:

As the deflection of rolls occurred by the high forces of rolling,

There are two types of rolling defects. Those are as follows:

• Surface rolling defects

• Internal structural rolling defects.

Wavy Edges Crack:

The result is thicker as the middle portion of the rolling part is bent or deflected by the
compressive load. There are some different cases. Those are as follows.

• For the imperfection of the roll gaps, variation occurs on the rolling sheets.
• If the thickness varies and along with that volume and width are constant then the
center is shortened than the edges. But the body is continuous.
• Then the edges portions are in the compression and the center portion is the tension.
• The result of the edge is wavy.
Zipper Cracks in Centre of Strip:
Zipper Crack is a type of Wavy Crack. If there is an uneven stress distribution on the strip, then
the crack occurs in the centreline of the strip. It is called Zipper Cracks in the Center of Strip.
This crack looks like a zip so that it called Zipper Cracks.

Edge Crack:

Edge cracks occur when the hot rolls are cooled. It happens as excessive quenching effects on
the strip.

If excess water is used to cool the edges. The use of excess water might give the result of
unflattens in the strips. The edges of the metal got rounded off as the friction force prevents the
corners and increases the length of the center portion.
Alligator Crack:

Alligator Crack is one type of cracking where the metal has any inclusions or weakness of
metallurgy. That causes factor in the strip. As this crack separates the layers and increases the
slabs openings, it looks like the mouth of an alligator. So that name of this crack is Alligator
Crack.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS:

Hot rolling Advantages:

• Larger deformation can be accomplished and more rapidly by hot working since the
metal is in plastic state.

• Porosity of the metal is considerably minimised.

• Concentrated impurities, if any in the metal are disintegrated and distributed throughout
the metal.

• Grain structure of the metal is refined and physical properties improved.

Disadvantages

• Due to high temperature a rapid oxidation or scale formation takes place on the metal
surface, leading to poor surface finish and loss of metal.

• On account of the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel piece being worked the
surface layer loses its strength, which is a disadvantage when the part is put to service.

• This weakening of the surface layer may give rise to crack which may ultimately result
in fatigue failure of the part.

• Close tolerances cannot be maintained.

• It involves excessive expenditure on account of high cost of tooling. This, however, is

compensated by the high production rate and better quality of products.
Cold rolling Advantages:

Quarter Hard, Half Hard, Full Hard stock have higher amounts of reduction. This increases
the

• yield point;

• grain orientation and

• material properties assume

• Ductility decreases.

• Quarter Hard material can be bent (perpendicular to the direction of rolling) on itself
without fracturing.

• Half hard material can be bent 90º; full hard can be bent 45º.

Disadvantages:

• Better dimensional control than hot working is possible because the reduction in size is
not much.

• Surface finish of the component is better because no oxidation takes place during the
process.

• Strength and hardness of the metal are increased.

• It is an ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals which do not respond to
the heat treatment.

• Only ductile metals can be shaped through cold working.

DRAWING:

Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal. It is broken up
into two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing. The specific definition
for sheet metal drawing is that it involves plastic deformation over a curved axis. For wire, bar,
and tube drawing the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its diameter and increase
its length. Drawing is usually done at room temperature, thus classified a cold working process,
however it may be performed at elevated temperatures to hot work large wires, rods or hollow
sections in order to reduce forces Bar, tube, and wire drawing all work upon the same principle:
the starting stock drawn through a die to reduce the diameter and increase the length. Usually,
the die is mounted on a draw bench. The end of the workpiece is reduced or pointed to get the
end through the die. The end is then placed in grips and the rest of the workpiece is pulled
through the die. Steels, copper alloys, and aluminium alloys are common materials that are
drawn.
Drawing Dies:

Drawing dies are typically made of tool steel, tungsten carbide, or diamond, with tungsten
carbide and manufactured diamond being the most common. Synthetic diamond is usually used
in the early stages of the drawing process, whereas natural diamond dies are used in the final
stages. For drawing very fine wire a single crystal diamond die is used. For hot drawing, cast-
steel dies are used. For steel wire drawing, a tungsten carbide die is used. The dies are placed
in a steel casing, which backs the die and allow for easy die changes. Die angles usually range
from 6–15° and each die has at least 2 different angles: the entering angle and approach angle.
Wire dies usually are used with power as to pull the wire through them. There are coils of wire
on either end of the die which pull and roll up the wire with a reduced diameter. Drawing can
also be used to produce a cold formed shaped cross-section. Cold drawn cross-sections are
more precise and have a better surface finish than hot extruded parts. Inexpensive materials can
be used instead of expensive alloys for strength requirements, due to work hardening.

Wire Drawing:

Wire drawing is a metal-reducing process in which a wire rod is pulled or drawn through a
single die or a series of continuous dies, thereby reducing its diameter. Because the volume of
the wire remains the same, the length of the wire changes according to its new diameter.
Various wire tempers can be produced by a series of drawing and annealing operations.
(Temper refers to toughness.) The process of wire drawing involves the production of wire of
close diameter and tolerance by drawing descaled hot-rolled rod through a die. The finished
wire is coiled onto a motor driven block. The dies are manufactured from hard material e.g
tungsten carbide. Diamonds dies are used for small diameter wire. Soap is used for lubrication.
If large diameter reductions are required the rod is progressively drawn through several stages
of dies and blocks. Wire can be extruded at speeds of up to 2000 m/min.
Wire drawing is primarily the same as bar drawing except that it involves smaller - diameter
material that can be coiled. It is generally performed as a continuous operation on draw bench
like the one shown in Fig.14. The rotating draw block provides a continuous pull on the
incoming wire. Large coil of hot rolled material of nearly 10 mm diameter is taken and
subjected to preparation treatment before the actual drawing process.

The preparation treatment for steel wire consists of,

✓ Cleaning. This may be done by acid pickling, rinsing, and drying. Or,
it may be done by mechanical flexing.

✓ Neutralization. Any remaining acid on the raw material is neutralized

by immersing it in a lime bath. The corrosion protected material is also
given a thin layer of lubricant.

To begin the drawing process, one end of coil is reduced in cross section upto some length and
fed through the drawing die, and gripped. A wire drawing die is generally made of tungsten
carbide and has the configuration shown in Fig. 15 for drawing very fine wire, diamond die is
preferred.

Figure 14

Figure 15
Small diameter wire is generally drawn on tandem machine which consists of a series of dies,
each held in a water-cooled die block. Each die reduces the cross section by a small amount so
as to avoid excessive strain in the wire. Intermediate annealing of material between different
states of wire may also be done, if required.

Process Characteristics:

• Pulls a wire rod through a die, reducing its diameter

• Increases the length of the wire as its diameter decreases

• May use several dies in succession (tandem) for small diameter wire

• Improves material properties due to cold working

• Wire temper can be controlled by swaging, drawing, and annealing

treatments.

Wire drawing consists of pulling a metal wire through a small circular opening called a die.
This results in a stretching or elongation of the material along with a reduction in cross sectional
area. The pulling force is limited by the strength of the material: pull too hard and the metal
will break. The force needed to pull the wire through the die is determined by the extent of the
reduction in cross-sectional area: the larger the reduction, the greater the force needed. Thus,
it can be seen that the maximum achievable reduction in diameter is limited by the yield
strength of the wire.

Yield strength depends on material composition but typically the reduction in area through a
die is in the region of 20 to 40%. If a greater reduction is needed this must be done by drawing
the wire through a series of dies, each one smaller than the one before.

However, the plastic deformation experienced by the metal as it is pulled through the die tends
to increase hardness and reduce ductility. (Ductility refers to the ease with which metal can be
deformed.) As this will make it harder to reduce the cross-section, it is often necessary to
perform an annealing process between successive draws to improve the way the metal deforms.
On the other hand, the increased tensile strength resulting from drawing is often seen as a very
desirable material property.

Wire drawing is usually performed cold, although there are some cases where metal is drawn
hot to improve ductility. Die lubrication is essential in cold drawing to achieve a good surface
finish as well to maximize the life of the die.

In contrast to wire drawing, deep drawing is a sheet metal process where the material is
stretched over a male form. This can be used to create complex three-dimensional shapes such
as sinks or beverage cans. This is often carried out in progressive dies, where the metal
workpiece is moved through a series of tools that gradually stretch the material to the required
form. One design issue to be addressed in deep drawing is that as the metal stretches it also
becomes thinner. Unless care is taken in engineering the way the metal deforms this can result
in hole in the workpiece.
Both wire drawing and deep drawing involve stretching metal to the required shape, and as
such are considered deformation rather than removal processes. A significant advantage of
drawing is that there is very little material waste. However, this benefit has to be set against
the high cost of the dies and the possible need to carry out annealing to counteract work
hardening.

Tube Drawing:

Tube drawing is very similar to bar drawing, except the beginning stock is a tube. It is used to
decrease the diameter, improve surface finish and improve dimensional accuracy. A mandrel
may or may not be used depending on the specific process used. The diameter and wall
thickness of tubes that have been produced by extrusion or other processes can be reduced by
tube drawing process. The process of tube drawing shown in Fig.16 is similar to wire or rod
drawing except that it usually requires a mandrel of the requisite diameter to form the internal
hole. Tubes as large as 0.3 m in diameter can be drawn.

Figure 16

Drawing Equipment:

Drawing equipment can be of several designs. These designs can be classified into two basic
types; Draw bench, and Bull block.

A draw bench (Fig. 16) uses a single die and the pulling force is supplied by a chain drive or
by hydraulic means. Draw bench is used for single length drawing of rod or tube with diameter
greater than 20mm. Length can be as much as 30 m. The drawing speed attainable on a draw
bench range from 5 m/min to 50 m/min. Draw benches are available having capacities to
provide pull force of up to 1 MN.

Bull block or rotating drum (Fig. 14) is used for drawing rods or wires of very long length.
Production of this kind of products is far beyond the reach of the hot rolling, and so a substantial
proportion of tubing is still cold drawn for the following reasons.

• To produce tubes with thinner walls than can be hot rolled.

• To produce tubes with smaller diameters.

• To produce tubes longer than can be hot rolled in certain sizes.

• To secure better surface finishes.

 • To obtain closer dimensional tolerances.

• To increase certain mechanical properties, such as tensile strength.

• To produce shapes other than round.

• To produce tubes with varying diameters and wall thicknesses from

end to end.

• To make small lots of tubing of odd sizes and gages that do not justify
a hot mill run.

The practical minimum tube diameter produced by hot rolling is 33.3 mm (1 5/16 inches), and
2.1 mm (0.083 inch) is the thinnest wall of commercial hot-rolled tube.

Tube Drawing Processes:

When a hollow tube is drawn through a die, generally a mandrel or plug is used to support the
inside diameter of the tube, this process is called tube drawing. The function of the plug is to
effect wall reduction and to control the size of the hole. However, the mandrel may be omitted
if it is not necessary to make a reduction in the wall thickness, or if the dimensions and surface
of the inside are not important. The process to draw a pipe without any mandrel is known as
tube sinking.

In drawing tubes over a stationary mandrel, the maximum practical sectional area reduction
does not exceed 40 per cent per pass the increased friction from the mandrel. If a carefully
matched mandrel floats in the die throat of the die, it is possible to achieve a reduction in area
of 45 percent, and for the same reduction the drawing loads are lower than for drawing with a
fixed plug. This style is called the drawing with floating plug. To be mentioned is that in this
style, tool design and lubrication can be very critical. Problems with friction in tube drawing
are minimized in drawing with a long mandrel. The mandrel consists of along hard rod or wire
that extends over the entire length of the tube and is drawn through the die with the tube. In
this design, the area reduction can be 50 per cent. However, after drawing, the mandrel must
be removed from the tube by rolling (reeling), which increases the tube diameter slightly and
disturbs the dimensional tolerances.

The drawing process discussed above can be illustrated in the Fig. 17.

Fig. 17: Tube drawing processes (a) Sinking; (b) fixed plug; (c) floating plug; (d) moving
mandrel
FORGING:

Forging is a basic process in which the work piece is shaped by compressive forces applied
through various dies and tooling. It is one of the oldest and most important metalworking
operations used to make jewellery, coins, and various implements by hammering metal with
tools made of stone. Forged parts now include large rotors for turbines; gears; bolts and rivets;
cutlery); hand tools; numerous structural components for machinery, aircraft and railroads and
a variety of other transportation equipment.

Simple forging operations can be performed with a heavy hammer and an anvil, as has been
done traditionally by blacksmiths. However, most forgings require a set of dies and such
equipment as a press or a powered forging hammer.

Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated temperatures
(warm or hot forging) depending on the homologous temperature. Cold forging requires higher
forces (because of the higher strength of the work piece material), and the work piece material
must possess sufficient ductility at room temperature to undergo the necessary deformation
without cracking. Cold-forged parts have a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Hot
forging requires lower forces, but the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are
not as good as in cold forging.

Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as heat treating to
modify properties and machining to obtain accurate final dimensions and a good surface finish.
These finishing operations can be minimized by precision forging, which is an important
example of net-shape or near-net-shape forming processes. As we shall see components that
can be forged successfully also may be manufactured economically by other methods, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or machining.

Each of these will produce a part having different characteristics, particularly with regard to
strength, toughness, dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and the possibility of internal or
external defects. In forging the material is deformed applying either impact load or gradual
load. Based on the type of loading, forging is classified as hammer forging or press forging.
Hammer forging involves impact load, while press forging involves gradual loads.

Based on the nature of material flow and constraint on flow by the die/punch, forging is
classified as open die forging, impression die forging and flashless forging.

Open Die Forging:

In this, the work piece is compressed between two platens. There is no constraint to material
flow in lateral direction. Open die forging is a process by which products are made through a
series of incremental deformation using dies of relatively simple shape. The top die is attached
to ram and bottom die is attached to the hammer anvil or press bed. Metal work piece is heated
above recrystalline temp from 1900 to 24000 c.Most open die forging are produced on flat dies.
Convex surface dies and concave surface dies are also used in pairs or with flat dies.

Open die forging is classified into three main types, namely, cogging, fullering and edging.
Cogging: Cogging (also called as drawing out) consists of a sequence in which the thickness
of an ingot is reduced to billet or blooms by narrow dies.

Fullering and Edging operations are done to reduce the cross section using convex shaped or
concave shaped dies. Material gets distributed and hence gets elongated and reduction in
thickness happens.

Upsetting is an open die forging in which the billet is subjected to lateral flow by the flat die
and punch. Due to friction the material flow across the thickness is non-uniform. Material
adjacent to the die gets restrained from flowing, whereas, the material at center flows freely.
This causes a phenomenon called barrelling in upset forging.

Impression Die Forging:

Here half the impression of the finished forging is sunk or made in the top die and other half
of the impression is sunk in the bottom die. In impression die forging, the work piece is pressed
between the dies. As the metal spreads to fill up the cavities sunk in the dies, the requisite shape
is formed between the closing dies. Some material which is forced out of the dies is called
“flash”. The flash provides some cushioning for the dies, as the top strikes the anvil. The flash
around the work piece is cut and discarded as scrap. For a good forging, the impression in the
dies has to be completely filled by the material. This may require several blows of the hammer;
a single blow may not be sufficient.
Closed Die Forging:

Closed die forging is very similar to impression die forging, but in true closed die forging, the
amount of material initially taken is very carefully controlled, so that no flash is formed.
Otherwise, the process is similar to impression die forging. It is a technique which is suitable
for mass production.

Drop Forging:

Drop forging utilizes a closed impression die to obtain the desired shape of the component.
The shaping is done by the repeated hammering given to the material in the die cavity. The
equipment used for delivering the blows are called drop hammers.

Drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the
machine while the upper half is fixed to the ram. The heated stock is kept in the lower die.
While the ram delivers four to five blows on the metal, in quick succession so that the metal
spread and completely fills the die cavity. When the two die halves closed the complete cavity
is formed.

The die impressions are machined in the die cavity, because of more complex shapes can be
obtained in drop forging, compared to smith forging. However too complex shape with internal
cavities, deep pockets, cannot be obtained in drop forging. Due to limitation of withdrawal of
finished forging from die. The final shape desired in drop forging cannot be obtained directly
from the stock in the single pass. Depending upon the shape of the component, the desired
grain flow direction and the material should be manipulated in a number of passes. Various
passes are used are

Fullering impression: Since drop forging involves only a reduction in cross section with no
upsetting, the very first step to reduce the stock is fullering.The impression machined in the die
to achieve this is called fullering impression.

Edging impression: Also called as preform. This stage is used to gather the exact amount of
material required at each cross-section of the finished component. This is the most important
stage in drop forging.

Bending impression: This is required for those parts which have a bend shape. The bend shape
can also be obtained without the bending impressions. Then the grain flow direction will not
follow the bend shape and thus the point of bend may become weak. To improve the grain
flow, therefore a bending impression is incorporated after edging impression.
Blocking impression: It is also called as semi finshing impression. Blocking is a step before
finishing. In forging, it is difficult for the material to flow to deep pockets, sharp corners etc.
Hence before the actual shape is obtained, the material is allowed to have one or more blocking
impressions where it requires the shape very near to final one. The blocking impression is
characterized by large corner radii and fillet but no flash.

Finishing impression: This is the final impression where the actual shape required obtained.
In order to ensure that the metal completely fills the die cavity, a little extra metal is added to
the stock. The extra metal will form the flash and surround the forging in the parting plane.

Trimming: In this stage the extra flash present around the forging is trimmed to get the forging
in the usable form.

Press Forging:

Press forging dies are similar to drop forging dies as also the process. In press forging the
metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging, but by means of a single
continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained by means of hydraulic presses.
Because of continuous action of the hydraulic presses, the material gets uniformly deformed
throughout the entire depth. More hammer force is likely to be transmitted to the machine frame
in drop forging where in press forging it is absorbed fully by stock. The impression obtained
in press forging is clean compared to that of jarred impression which is like in drop forged
component. The draft angle in press forging is less than in drop forging. But the press capacity
required for deforming is higher and as a result the smaller sized component only are press
forged in closed impression dies. The presses have capacities ranging from 5MN to 50 MN for
normal application for special heavy-duty application, higher capacity press of order 150 MN
are required.

To provide the necessary alignment the two halves, die post are attached to the bottom die so
that the top die would slide only on the post and thus register the correct alignment. This ensures
better tolerance for press forged components.

FORGING DEFECTS:

The common forging defects can be traced to defects in raw material, improper heating of
material, Faulty design of dies and improper forging practice. Most common defects present in
forgings are:
 ✓ Laps and Cracks at corners or surfaces lap is caused due to following
over of a layer of material over another surface. These defects are caused
by improper forging and faulty die design.

✓ Incomplete forging—either due to less material or inadequate or

improper flow of material.

✓ Mismatched forging due to improperly aligned die halves.

✓ Scale pits—due to squeezing of scales into the metal surface during

hammering action.

✓ Burnt or overheated metal—due to improper heating.

✓ Internal cracks in the forging which are caused by use of heavy hammer
blows and improperly heated and soaked material.

✓ Fibre flow lines disruption due to very rapid plastic flow of metal.

COINING (STAMPING):

Coining is a cold forming process where certain surface forms are produced with low material
displacement.

Types and applications of coining processes:

Coining:

In coining the thickness of the material in the starting stock is altered.

Application:

Coin production (Figure 18), indenting impressions into badges, coining components for
mechanical engineering and the electrical engineering industry (Figure 19).

Figure 18: Coin production Figure 19: Coined control lever (contact piece)
a) blank, b) finished part
 Unit 4 End Questions:

1. (a) What is the condition for biting in rolling? Explain.

(b) Discuss recovery, recrystallization and grain growth effect in rolling processes.

Differentiate Hot working and cold working.

(c)
2. (a) Classify the types of rolling mills and explain them.

(b) Exemplify various defects usually occur in wire drawing process.

3. (a) Explicate the process of tube production by rolling process?

(b) Outline the advantages and applications of rolling process.

4. (a) Differentiate smith forging and drop forging.

(b) Summarize Wire drawing process with its applications.

5. (a) List out various advantages and applications of forging process.

(b) Illustrate orbital forging and explain where the process can be applied.

6. (a) Differentiate hot rolling and cold rolling processes.

(b) List out various advantages and applications of Drawing process.

7. (a) With the help of neat sketch explain the process of spinning.

(b) What are the advantages of spinning process?

8. (a) Distinguish between hot forming process and cold forming process

(b) Exemplify various defects usually occur in forging.

9. (a) What is coining? Explain the process with the help of a neat sketch.

(b) Illustrate Upset forging process. Outline its applications

Summarize the following forging processes

10
(i)Smith forging, (ii) Closed die forging