An Introduction
to Medicinal
Chemistry
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Medicinal chemistry
It is best to be defined as an interdisciplinary research area incorporating
Medicinal Chem istry
different branches of chemistry and biology in the research for better and
new drugs (Drug Discovery).
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Medicinal • It’s the design and synthesis of novel drugs,
based on an understanding of how they work
Chemistry at the molecular level.
The • Is skilled in the fields of organic synthesis,
Medicinal molecular modelling and drug design, should
have a basic knowledge of relevant subjects
Chemist such as biochemistry and pharmacology.
• Are normally low molecular weight
Drugs chemicals that interact with macromolecular
targets in the body to produce a
pharmacological effect
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Generally Medicinal
Chemists can:
Make new compounds
Determine their effect on biological processes.
Alter the structure of the compound for
optimum effect and minimum side effects.
Study uptake, distribution, metabolism and
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excretion of drugs.
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Penicillin
Year: 1928
Alexander Fleming
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What are drugs and why do we need
new ones?
Drugs
..are strictly defined as chemical substances that are used
to prevent or cure diseases in humans, animals and plants.
Drugs are chemicals that are normally of low molecular
weight (~100-500), which interact with macromolecular
targets to produce a biological response.
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Drug Classification-I
Natural Synthesis Semi-synthesis
compounds compounds compounds
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Drug Classification -I
These remedial agents could be classified according to their
origin:
• Natural compounds: materials obtained from both plant and
animal, e.g. vitamins, hormones, amino acids, antibiotics,
alkaloids, glycosides…. etc.).
• Synthesis compounds: either pure synthesis or synthesis
naturally occurring compounds (e.g. morphine, atropine,
steroids and cocaine) to reduce their cost.
• Semi-synthesis compounds: Some compounds either can not
be purely synthesized or can not be isolated from natural
sources in low cost. Therefore, the natural intermediate of such
drugs could be used for the synthesis of a desired product (e.g.
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semi synthetic penicillin).
Drug Classification -II
Drugs can be classified according to their pharmacological
effects into two main classes:
I. Pharmacodynamic agents: Drugs that act on the various
physiological functions of the body (e.g. pain killers, general
anesthetics, hypnotic and sedatives, analgesic etc.).
II. Chemotherapeutic agents: Those drugs which are used
to fight pathogenic used to cure infectious diseases and cancer
(e.g. sulphonamides, antibiotics, antimalarial agents, antiviral,
anticancer etc.).
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Drug Classification -III
A third method by which Drugs c an be classified by its
chemical structure.
Common structural feature often share a similar
pharmacological activity, For example:
1-Penicillins:
all contain -lactam
ring and kill bacteria by
the same mechanism.
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2-S u lfonamides:
have similar structure and
are mostly antibacterial,
and treatment of diabetes.
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Drug Classification -IV
Drugs classification according to their molecular target
considered as the most useful classification as far as
medicinal chemist is concerned.
It allows comparison of the structure involved.
For example: anticholinesterases are compounds inhibit an
enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. They have the same
mechanism of action and so it is valid to compare various
structures
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Characteristics of Different
Routes of Drug Administration
A route of administration in pharmacology and
toxicology
Is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is
taken into the body.
Routes of administration are generally classified by the
location at which the substance is applied.
The choice of appropriate route in a given situation depends both
on drug as well as patient related factors.
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Characteristics of Different
Routes of Drug Administration
1. Oral/swallowed
2. Oral/sublingual
3. Rectal
4. Topical
5. Inhalation
6. Parenteral Route
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Characteristics of Different Routes of
Drug Administrations
• 1. Oral/swallowed. Oral ingestion is the
oldest and commonest mode of drug
administration.
• Most drugs in this route of administration
are absorbed in small intestine. Full
stomach delays absorption.
• Several drugs may subject to first-pass
metabolism by liver
• It is safer, more convenient, noninvasive,
often painless, the medicament need not
be sterile and so cheaper. Both solid
dosage forms and liquid dosage forms can
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be given orally.
Characteristics of Different Routes
of Drug Administrations
2. Oral/sublingual.The tablet or pellet 3. Rectal. Here the drugs are absorbed
containing the drug is placed under the directly from the rectum.
tongue
• It partially avoids first-pass metabolism
• or crushed in the mouth and spread
by liver and also for those likely to
over the buccal mucosa. In this mode
of administration vomit and lose swallowed medication.
• fast systemic absorption is observed • Certain irritant and unpleasant drugs
which, bypass gastrointestinaltract can be put into rectum as suppositories
entry. or retention enema for systemic effect.
• It avoids absorption and first-pass • Ex: Aminophylline, indomethacin,
metabolism in the liver and is useful for
paraldehyde, diazepam, and few other
those likely to vomit from swallowed
drugs.
medication.
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Characteristics of Different Routes
of Drug Administrations
4.Topical. In this technique drugs are
absorbed through the skin.
• This route is useful for those likely to
vomit (e.g. nicotine patch, .. ). Highly
lipid soluble drugs can be applied over
the skin for slow and prolonged Estrogen
absorption.
• The drug bypasses the liver by this
route of administration.
• The drug can be incorporated in an
ointment and applied over specified
area of skin. nicotine
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Characteristics of Different Routes
of Drug Administrations
5. Inhalation. 6. Parenteral Route.
• Volatile oils and gases are given by • Parenteral administration refers to
administration by injection into tissue
inhalation ex: general anesthetic,
fluid or blood without having to cross
amylnitrite.
the intestinal mucosa.
• The drugs enter the bloodstream very • This route can be employed even in
rapidly from the lungs. unconscious, uncooperative or
vomiting patient.
• Here no absorption or first-pass
metabolism problems occur.This route • The rate of absorption depends on
is potentially dangerous because it is so blood flow through injection site.
fast and direct.
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Sites of Drug 1. Enzyme inhibition
Action by modifying normal biochemical
reactions.
Enzyme inhibition may be reversible or
non-reversible
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Sites of Drug 2. Drug Receptor interaction
Action • Drugs act on the cell membrane by
physical and/or chemical interactions.
This is usually through specific drug
receptor sites known to be located on
the membrane.
• A receptor is the specific chemical
constituents of the cell with which a
drug interacts to produce its
pharmacological effects.
• Some receptor sites have been
identified with specific parts of proteins
and nucleic acids. In most cases, the
chemical nature of the receptor site
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remains obscure.
Sites of Drug 3. Non-Specific interaction
Action • Drugs act exclusively by physical means
outside of cells.
• These sites include external surfaces of
skin and gastrointestinal tract.
• Drugs also act outside of cell
membranes by chemical interactions.
Neutralization of stomach acid by
antacids is a good example.
Antacid
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Drug • Majority of drugs show remarkably high
correlation of structure and specificity to
Receptor produce pharmacological effects.
Interactions • A minimum three-point attachment of a
drug to a receptor site is required.
• In most cases specific chemical structure is
required for the receptor site and a
complementary drug structure.
• Slight changes in the molecular structure
of the drug may drastically change
specificity.
• To initiate a biological response, the drug
must form bond with the receptor surface.
• Different types of binding forces that may
exist in drug-receptor interactions are as
follows: 31
Drug
Receptor
Interactions
(i) Covalent interactions.
(ii) Ionic interactions.
(iii) Hydrogen bonding
interactions (non-
ionic/neutral).
(iv) VanderWaals
interaction
(v) Hydrophobic/Lipophilic
interactions
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Drug
Receptor • Frequently, a covalent bond is firm and
described as essentially
Interactions • “irreversible” under biological conditions..
Examples:
• (a) Antineoplastic or antibiotic drugs act
(i) Covalent interactions. mainly through the formation of covalent
bonds
These chemical forces may
result in a temporary binding • (b) The DNA-alkylating chemotherapeutic
of the drug to the receptor. agents are chemically highly reactive, forming
covalent bonds with DNA functional groups.
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Drug
Receptor • Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction
of opposite charges in the receptor site
Interactions with the ionized groups of the drug
molecule.
(ii)Ionic interactions. • They are strong electrostatic
interactions (5-10 kcal/mol) and are
Since many drugs contain
acid or amine functional responsible for relative orientation of
groups,which are ionized at the drug to its binding site.
physiological pH.
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Drug
Receptor
Interactions • The hydrogen bond strength is distance
dependent may range from 5 – 7
kcal/mol, depending on the binding
(iii) Hydrogen bonding environment.
interactions (non-
ionic/neutral).
Polar-polar interactions
are the attraction of
opposite charges
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Drug (a) Interactions at a close range
Receptor
(b)The Vander Waals interaction forces
occur less frequently than hydrophobic
Interactions forces
(c)Interactions are much weaker (~ 0.5-1
kcal/mol) than other electrostatic
(iv) Vander Waals
interaction. These forces interactions
have the following
characteristic feutures:
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Drug Finally hydrophobic bonds are formed
between:
Receptor • non-polar hydrocarbon groups on the
Interactions drug and those in the receptor site.
• These bonds are not very specific but
the interactions do occur to exclude
(v) Hydrophobic/Lipophilic
interactions water molecules
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