EE 422

DC & AC MACHINERY
AC Generators

Engr. Kristine Mariel B. Bejasa

Lecturer
 AC Generator Types
AC generators, also known as alternators, are devices that convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy. They are widely used in power plants, as well as in
various industrial and commercial applications, such as backup power systems
and portable generators.

There are two types of generator (according to construction):

1. Rotating armature AC Generator
These are typically used in applications involving
small amounts of power. With larger amounts of
power, more current flow occurs through the slip rings
and brushes. It is difficult and expensive to build slip
rings and brushes to carry large amounts of current.
Therefore, most large AC generators are rotating field
generators.
 AC Generator Types
2. Rotating field AC Generator
The rotating field AC generator is by far the most
widely used generator. In this type of generator,
direct current from a separate source is passed
through windings on the rotor by means of slip
rings and brushes. This maintains a rotating
electromagnetic field of fixed polarity (similar to a
rotating bar magnet). The advantage in this type of
construction is that larger amounts of currents can
be handled because there are no sliding contacts
and the whole output circuit is continuously
insulated. Slip rings and brushes are adequate for
the DC field supply because the current level in
the field is much smaller than in the armature
circuit.
 AC Generator: ADVANTAGES OF HAVING STATIONARY ARMATURE
1.) The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on
the stator to the load circuit without passing through the brush
contacts.

2.) It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding of high ac

voltages which may have as high a value as 30 kV or more.

3.) The sliding contacts are transferred to the low voltage, low power
dc field circuit which can, therefore easily insulated.

4.) The armature windings can be more easily braced to prevent any
deformation which could be produced by the mechanical stresses
set up as a result of short circuit current and the high centrifugal
forces brought into play.

5.) The armature winding is cooled more because the stator case
core can be made large enough and with many air passages or air
ducts for force air circulation.

6.) The armature winding is more complex than the field and can be
constructed more easily on stationary armature.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to principle of operation):

1. Synchronous Generator
✔ designed to produce electrical power with a constant frequency and voltage. The generator
operates by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, using a rotating magnetic
field in the stator to induce a current in the armature.
✔ In a synchronous generator, the rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field
in the stator, hence the name synchronous.
✔ The rotor of the generator is equipped with a set of field windings that are supplied with direct
current (DC) to create a magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic field of the stator.
✔ Synchronous generators are commonly used in power plants, where they are connected to a
power grid to supply electrical power to consumers. They are also used in backup power
systems and emergency generators, where a reliable and constant source of electrical power
is required.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to principle of operation):

2. Induction Generator
✔ also known as an asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that operates
based on the principle of induction.
✔ In an induction generator, the rotor is not equipped with any field windings, but instead
consists of a set of conducting bars or plates that are short-circuited together. When the rotor
rotates within the magnetic field of the stator, an electrical current is induced in the rotor bars
by the principle of electromagnetic induction. This current creates a magnetic field that
interacts with the magnetic field of the stator, generating electrical power.
✔ The generator is designed to operate at a speed slightly higher than the synchronous speed,
which causes the rotor to act as a motor and drive the generator. This phenomenon is known
as slip, and the difference between the synchronous speed and the actual operating speed of
the generator is called the slip speed.
✔ Induction generators are commonly used in wind turbines, where they are connected to a
power grid to supply electrical power to consumers. They are also used in hydroelectric
power plants, where the water flow drives the generator and the grid provides the
magnetizing current to the stator.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to number of phase):

1. Single Phase Generators

✔ Single-phase generator (also known as a single-phase alternator) is an alternating current
electrical generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage. Single-phase
generators can be used to generate power in single-phase electric power systems.
2. Three Phase Generators
✔ Three-phase generators (also known as polyphase) work by producing three separate waves
of AC power that operate in a sequence, ensuring that there is always a continuous flow of
energy and that the power level never dips as it does with single-phase generators.
✔ Most electric power is generated and distributed as three-phase rather than single-phase
power for the following reasons:
✔ The cost of transmission is less than for the same voltage and power in a single-phase
system.
✔ A three-phase generator has a 180% greater capacity than a single phase generator of the
same physical size.
✔ Single-phase voltage and power is easily available from a three-phase system by merely
tapping any two of the power leads.
 AC Generator Types
Three-Phase continuation…

A three-phase AC generator is designed to produce three-phase AC power by building more

coils in the stator around the rotor. The three coils are equally spaced 120° apart around the inside
of the stator. The armature coils are wired so that the generator has three separate output voltages
that differ in phase by 120 degrees.`

Simplified Three-Phase AC
Generator

Voltage Output of a Three-Phase

Generator
AC Generator Parts

Stator
 AC Generator Parts
STATOR FRAME
In DC machines, the outer frame (or the yoke)
serves to carry the magnetic flux, but in alternator, it is
not meant for that purpose. Hence, it is useful for
hiding the armature stampings and windings in
position. Low speed large diameter alternators have
frames which because of ease of manufacture, are
cast in sections. Ventilation is maintained with help of
the holes cast in the frame itself. The provision of
radial ventilating spaces in the stampings assists in
cooling the machine.

STATOR CORE
The armature core is supported by the stator frame and is built up of laminations of special
magnetic iron or steel alloy. The core is laminates to minimize loss due to eddy currents. The
laminations are stamped out in complete rings (for small machines). The laminations are insulated
from each other and have spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through. The
slots for housing the armature conductor lie along the inner periphery of the
core and are stamped out at the same time when laminations are formed.
 AC Generator Parts
ROTOR TYPES:
SALIENT POLE
• In salient pole type of rotor consist of large number of projected poles (salient poles) mounted
on a magnetic wheel. The projected poles are made up from laminations of steel. The rotor
winding is provided on these poles and it is supported by pole shoes.
• have large diameter and shorter axial length.
• generally used in lower speed electrical
machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.

NON-SALIENT POLE
• cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to
place rotor windings. It is made up of solid
steel. Sometimes, they are also called as drum
rotor.
• smaller in diameter but having longer axial
length.
• used in high speed electrical machines, usually
1500 RPM to 3000 RPM.
 AC Generator Parts
ARMATURE - This is where voltage is generated.
TYPES OF ARMATURE SLOTS
1. WIDE OPEN - Wide open type slot (also used in DC machines) has the advantage of
permitting easy installation of form wound coils and their easy removal in case of repair. But it has a
disadvantage of distributing the air gap flux into bunches or tufts that produce riffles in the wave of
generated emf.
2. SEMI – CLOSED - Semi – closed type flux is better in this respect, but do not allow the use of
form- wound coils.
3. WHOLLY CLOSED - Wholly closed type slots or tunnels do not disturb the air gap flux but (i)
they tend to increase the inductance of the windings (ii). The armature conductors have to be
threaded through, thereby increasing initial labor and cost of winding and (iii). They present a
complicated problem of end connections hence they are rarely used .
 AC Generator: Armature winding
ARMATURE WINDING FOR ALTERNATOR
The type of winding most generally used in alternators is very similar to the DC lap winding. In DC
armatures it will be recalled that the coils are connected together at the commutator; in AC
armatures they are joined together by merely connecting the proper coil ends in the correct
sequence.

Two general arrangements of coil are employed:

1. Half – coiled or single layer
2. Whole – coiled or double layer winding.

For Single Layer Winding / Half Coil:

Number of Slots = number of coil sides

For Whole Coiled Winding or Double Layer:

Number of Stator Slots = 2 x number of coil sides
 AC Generator: Armature winding
Number of Coils per Group Example
1. 36 slots, 4 poles, 3 phase alternator,
double layer winding

Coil Span (Ys)

Distance between Phases

(3 phase, positive sequence)
- 120 degrees each
- (AB – BC – CA) 2. 90 slots, 6 poles, 3 phase single layer
winding
 AC Generator: Armature winding
Pitch Factor or Chording Factor or Coil Span Factor
The ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full
pitch coil.
• It may be defined as the ratio of the vector sum of the induced emf’s per coil. It is may also be
defined as the ratio of the emf’s of short pitch coil to emf’s of full – pitch coil.

Half pitch or fractional Full pitch

pitch
 Sample
3. Calculate the pitch factors for the following windings:
a.) 36 slots, four poles, span 1 to 8;
b.) 72 slots, six poles, span 1 to 10
c.) 96 slots, four pole, span 1 to 12
 AC Generator: Armature winding
DISTRIBUTION OR BREADTH OR WINDING OR SPREAD FACTOR
When several coils in group are connected in series, the total generated voltage by the group is
not equal to the voltage per coil multiply by the number of coils in the group. It is always less than
this because the coils are displaced from each other, which means that the voltage generated in the
several coils are not in phase with each other.
The factor by which the generated voltage must be multiplied to obtain the correct value is called
the distribution factor; it is designated by the symbol kd.
Distributing the winding in many slots has the effect of improving the shape of the voltage wave.
The value of kd is given by the equation;

Where;
kd= distribution factor
n= number of slots per pole per phase
d°= number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots
 Sample
4. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, four pole three phase winding alternator.

5. A three phase alternator has 6 slots per pole per phase. Determine the distribution factor.
Generator Set Components
 Generator Set Components
Electric generator parts and functions include:

1. Engine
All generators have engines, no matter what their external source, be it diesel or hydrogen. It’s the engine
that supplies energy to the generator. The more powerful the engine, the more electricity a generator can
provide. The main components of a diesel engine – or more accurately, the parts of a generator engine –also
include:
1.a Fuel system: In this case, diesel is the external source, or mechanical energy. A tank will hold your
fuel, which in a large generator, permanently install, is typically a separate structure. The fuel tank for smaller,
portable units is usually held within the generator. Pipes will take the fuel to the engine, similar to a fuel pump
in a vehicle. A fuel filter will remove contaminants from reaching the engine, and a fuel injector pushes the
fuel into the combustion chamber.
1.b Cooling and exhaust systems: Generators need cooling systems to regulate the heat and prevent
overheating. Coolant fluid absorbs the heat and is then run through a heat exchanger, which sends the heat
into the air or into another coolant fluid.
How much ventilation does a generator need? Exhaust gases should be channeled away from the engine
and people, and are usually directed through pipes and vented into the external air. Follow the
manufacturer’s guidelines regarding how much clear space is needed around the generator, which will vary
by machine.
1.c Lubrication system: Generators are comprised of small, moving components. As such, they
need lubricating with engine oil to enable smooth operation while protecting them from excessive wear
and tear.
 Generator Set Components
2. Alternator
The function of alternators in diesel engines – or any engine – is where the external source, in this
case, diesel, converts into electricity. Moving and stationary parts create the magnetic field and
movement of electrons.
The alternator is where the energy conversion takes place within a generator set. The main
components of an alternator and its critical parts include:
• Armature: This is the main part of an AC generator, and where voltage is generated. It consists of
coils that carry the full load current in the generator.
• Field: Where the magnetic flux is created. In AC generators, the magnetic field changes as the
coils rotate.
• Slip Rings: These are electric connections that conduct the current from the stationary part to the
rotating part.
• Stator: The non-rotating electrical parts of a generator.
• Rotor: The rotating part of the generator. It produces a magnetic field in the generator. Depending
on the generator, the rotating part can also be the armature or the magnetic field.
 Generator Set Components
3. Voltage regulator
It’s critical that the generator regulates the voltage to produce a continual current for practical
use. This is the job of the voltage regulator, which helps control the electricity voltage produced. If
needed, it also converts the electricity from AC to DC. It’s usually located in either the generator’s
main control box or the terminal box of the alternator. On small, portable generators, you’ll typically
find it under the alternator’s rear cover.
How does a voltage regulator work on a generator? It automatically compares the voltage from
the generator terminals to a stable reference. An error signal then adjusts the field current as
needed to an exciter stator, which is part of the alternator. This, in turn, will either increase or
decrease the voltage at the main stator terminals.

4. Battery charger
Just as your car relies on a battery to start, so does a generator. The battery can be charged by
either the generator output itself or a separate charger.

5. Control panel
The generator is operated by the control panel, and covers everything from start and shut down
to engine speed to AC power frequency.
 Generator Set Components
6. Frame/housing
This is the assembly that contains the generator and holds it in one place. You have several options for
this, from waterproof housing to an open structural frame, as show here. Another function of the frame or
housing is to safely ground the generator’s electrical components.
Portable generator parts aren’t much different. These also have an engine, alternator, and fuel tank,
but also outlets to plug appliances into and a starter, which can be a push button or pull cord, similar to a
lawn mower.

How much voltage does a generator produce?

It’s important to note that a generator’s power is expressed as watts or kilowatts. Watts is the amount
of power the generator can safely output in a given time, but let’s back up. Remember, electricity is the
flow of electrons through a conductor. Amperes – commonly known as amps – is a measure of how many
electrons are flowing. Voltage is simply pressure. It’s the force that moves electrons through the
conductor. Voltage plus amperes produces the power that’s measured in watts.

But what determines output voltage?

The speed that the conductor moves through the fixed magnetic field, coupled with that field’s strength.
This speed is a result of the engine’s rotational speed. As the engine’s speed increases,
so does the voltage generated. Common voltages on commercial generators range from 120
to 4160 volts.
 Generator Set Components
What would cause a generator not to produce power?
Usually, this points to a loss of residual magnetism. This can happen through the generator’s
lack of use. Over time the reserve of magnetism drains until it runs out. Residual magnetism
can also be lost when a generator is powering a load and you turn it off. This causes the load to
suck the last of the generator’s magnetism. Yet another cause for losing residual magnetism is
leaving the generator on for too long while failing to plug it into anything.

To prevent loss of residual magnetism, use the generator from time to time, even if you don’t
need backup power. Be sure that you’re not using any plugged-in loads when you turn it off and
finally, keep the generator plugged into something unless you’re about to power it down.
Generator Set Sample
30000kVA Diesel
Generator

15kVA Diesel
Generator
DC vs AC Generator
 Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Alternator
Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. A
synchronous generator's rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct current is supplied. The
rotor's magnetic field points in whatever direction the rotor is turned. Now, the rate of rotation of the
magnetic fields in the machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by Equation:

Where: f= frequency of generated emf in Hertz

*1Hz=1cycle per sec (or cps)
N= mechanical speed of magnetic field, in rpm
(equals speed of rotor for synchronous
machines)
P= number of poles

Since the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field , this equation relates the speed of
rotor rotation to the resulting electrical frequency. Electric power is generated 60 Hz, so the generator
must turn at a fixed speed depending on the number of poles on the machine. Ex. To generate 60Hz
power in a 4 pole machine, the rotor must turn at 1800 rpm.
EMF equation of an Alternator
The rms voltage per phase is given by the formula:

If Z is given, use
𝐄𝐩h = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝐤𝐩𝐤d𝐟𝚽𝐙
If N is given, use
𝐄𝐩h = 4. 44𝐤𝐩𝐤d𝐟𝚽N

Where:
𝐄𝐩h =generated emf per phase, in Volts
Z = number of conductors per phase
=2N
N = number of coils or turns per phase
P = number of poles
f = frequency in Hertz or 1 cps
𝚽 = flux per pole, in Wb
𝐤𝐩 =pitch or coil span factor
𝐤d =distribution factor
 Short Circuit Test
The armature terminals are short circuited while a small field current is applied. Adjustments
maybe made such that Ip is approximately equal to the rated load armature current per phase.

I𝑆𝐶 = A

Where A is the ammeter reading during the test

 Open Circuit Test
The armature terminals are open circuited and the field current is made equal to the field current
during the short circuit test. With the armature winding circuit open, operate the alternator at
synchronous speed. Connect a dc source to the field, making provision to adjust the field current so
that, starting zero, it may be raised until the ac voltage between any pair of terminals of the armature
winding is somewhat above rated emf.

Eoc = V

Where:
V – voltmeter reading during the test
Eoc = open circuit voltage per phase
𝑽 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
 DC Resistance Test On Alternators
The armature resistance R per phase is determined by using direct current and the
voltmeter-ammeter method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature resistance (a.c.
resistance) is greater than this value due to *skin effect. It is a usual practice to take the effective
resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra ≈ 1.5Rdc).

where;
Rt = DC resistance of the alternator between any
two terminals
= ohmmeter reading during the test

*The skin effect may sometimes increase the effective resistance of armature conductors as high as 6 times its dc value.
 Sample
6. A 6-pole, 3-phase, 60-cycle alternator has 12 slots per pole and four conductors per slot. The winding is
5/6 pitch. There are 2,500,000 maxwells entering the armature from each north pole, and this flux is
sinusoidally distributed along the air gap. The armature coils are all connected in series. The winding is
wye-connected. Determine the line emf of the alternator
Sample
Sample
Parallel Operation of Alternators

In practice, a very large number of

3-phase alternators operate in parallel
because the various power stations are
interconnected through the national grid. An
alternator connected to such a system is said
to be connected to infinite busbars. The
alternators may be connected to or
disconnected from the infinite bus, depending
on the power demand on the system. If an
alternator is connected to infinite busbars no
matter what power is delivered by the
incoming alternator, the voltage and
frequency of the system remain the same.
The operation of connecting an alternator to
the infinite busbars is known as paralleling
with the infinite busbars.
 Parallel Operation of Alternators

The fig. shows a typical infinite bus system. Loads are tapped from the infinite bus at various load centers. The proper
method of connecting an alternator to the infinite busbars is called synchronizing. A stationary alternator must not be
connected to live busbars. It is because the induced e.m.f. is zero at standstill and a short-circuit will result. In order to
connect an alternator safely to the infinite busbars, the following conditions are met:
a. The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must be the same as busbars voltage.
b. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to the busbars frequency.
c. The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the busbars voltage. In other words,
the two voltages must be in phase with each other.
d. The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the busbars.
The magnitude of the voltage of the incoming alternator can be adjusted by changing its field excitation. The frequency of
the incoming alternator can be changed by adjusting the speed of the prime mover driving the alternator.
Condition (a) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (b) and (c) are indicated by synchronizing lamps or a
synchroscope. The condition (d) is indicated by a phase sequence indicator.
 Parallel Operation of Alternators
ADVANTAGES OF PARALLEL OPERATION OF GENERATORS

1. Continuity of Service - If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the whole
plant will be shut down. However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of
failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
2. Efficiency - Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Electric power costs less per kWh when
the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or more
generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
3. Maintenance and Repair - Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are
operated in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator while
load is being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and economy.
4. Increasing Plant Capacity - In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously
increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units.
5. Non-availability of single large unit - In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In
that case a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large
unit is more expensive.
Thank You!