Oculars: The ocular consists of a tube which fits snugly into the tube

of the microscope, ordinarily with a small set screw to hold it in a fixed position with cross hairs
north-south and east-west in the field of view.

An eye lens is located above and a field lens below. A visual ReId stop

with crosshairs, cross lines, or a ReId micrometer lies above the Reld lens

in the Huygenian ocular . The ReId stop lies below the

ReId lens in the Ramsden-type ocular . The image plane

and the plane of the crosshairs should coin-

cide.

Oculars used in modem petrographic microscopes are ordinarily of the Huygenian

type or a simple modification. These are

usually used in combination with 40 mm or

16 mm or corresponding objectives. Where

combinations giving higher magnifications

are desired, the ocular is similar to the Huygenian ocular but contains a specially corrected eye-Iens
arrangement giving a flat

field. Such correction is particularly important for photomicrography.

Thc Huygenian ocular is frequently called a negative ocular.

The eyepiece as a whole has no external focal plane

on the field-lens side. The Ramsden ocular is described as a positive ocular. The focal plane lies
below the field lens and the object image is

formed by the objective in this plane.

Compensating oculars are constructed lo accompany apochromatic

objectives.In order to occupy best results oculars magnifying more

than ten times should be of this type. Ordinary 5X and 10X oculars are

satisfactory for most work with the polarizing microscope.

The Filar micrometer eyepiece is designed for accurate

horizontal measurement across the field of view. A small cross line is

moved to and fro. The movement

is recorded on a drum at the side

of the eyepiece. A fine line through

the center of the field parallel to

the screw axis serves as a guide

in orienting the object with reference to the direction of movement

of the crossline. In the lower section of the field, a scale ruled in

0.5 mm with every second interval

numbered serves for counting screw

revolutions.

Micrometer eyepieces are also utilized when the dimensions of particular objects in the field of view
are desired . The Huygenian eyepiece contains a scale divided into 0.1 mm movable by means of a

screw at the side. The eye lens is focused on the scale. Such eyepieces are

useful in determining the axial angle of interference figures with the

microscope. The eyepieces should be calibrated with the aid of the stage

micrometers for various objectives. The dimensions represented by the

divisions in the micrometer ocular as observed at the eye

are governed by relations between the objective, the eyepiece, the tube

length, and by the presence or absence in the optical train of the analyser.

Micrometer eyepieces of the grating type (Figure 2-11c) are employed

to measure the areas of grains or fragments in the microscope field.

These are also calibrated for different lens combinations with a stage

micrometer.
Objectives:

Achromatic objectives are ordinarily used for thin-section or fragment

studies. Manufacturers usually supply as standard equipment 40-, 32-,

16- and 4-mm achromatic objectives, which serve for most purposes. In

the case of achromatic objectives correction of aberrations of the image

becomes more difficult with high eyepiece magnification, and only the

best achromatic objectives will give satisfactory results with an eyepiece

magnification of 12X or greater.

Apochromatic objectives are constructed to provide additional color

correction beyond that usually given by achromatic objectives. In this

objective practically all the images produced by the different colors of

the spectrum lie in the same plane and are equally sharp. The lenses are

made of combinations of fluorite and glass. The problems of securing

good fluorite and the practical difficulties in their manufacture are considerable; consequently the
cost is greater than the cost of ordinary achromatic objectives. Those objectives are only
occasionally used for microscopic study of minerals.

The principle features of an objective that are of interest to the student

Are the initial application, the numerical aperture, the focal length and the working distance.

The optical tube length divided by the focal length equals the initial

magnification. Several manufacturers stamp the initial magnification for

a standard mechanical tube lengthe on the objective. This figure multi-

plied by the power of the eyepiece gives the magnification for a standard

tube length. This should be corrected, however, when the analyzing

prism is inserted (unless the prism mount contains a correcting lens).

Corrections may be determined by using stage and eyepiece micrometers.

The working distance is the distance between the objective and the top
of the cover glass of the microscope slide when the objective is in focus.

The numerical aperture of an objective is a measure of the

largest cone of light that it covers from an object point at the principal

focus equals nsinp, where n is the index of refraction of the

medium between the object under examination and the objective and

p is one-half the angle of the cone of light entering the lens. The numerical aperture furnishes a
criterion of the quality of an objective. Other

things being equal, at any magnification, the intensity of the image de-

pends upon N.A.; the resolving power is directly proportional to N.A.;

the depth of focus is inversely proportional to N.A. In two objectives

having the same focal distance and therefore the same magnification, the

one with the greater N.A. will take a larger cone of light from the object

and will yield a brighter image. In general, with ordinary lighting, the

limit of useful magnification for an average observer lies between 500

and 1000 times the N.A.

Oil-immersion objectives are used for high magnifications where a high

degree of resolving power and correction are required. The oil should

agree in both dispersive power and index of refraction with the front

lens of the objective.

A considerable advantage is also gained by placing a drop of oil between

the auxiliary condenser lens and the microscope slide. The working distance of an oil-immersion
objective is very short; the lenses are difficult

to manufacture and are consequently expensive. A good oil-immersion

objective, however, gives a beautiful field with high magnification. The

objective should be handled carefully, especially in focusing. After use

the oil should be removed by the use of lens paper moistened with xylol

or benzene.

Magnification:The microscope is primarily an instrument for magnification. It is worthwhile,

therefore, to form an idea of the enlargement

of the field of view with the lens systems available. The following table

outlines the magnifications at the eye for different combinations of objectives with an equivalent
focus of 40, 32, 16, 8, 4, and 2 mm (oil immersion) and also oculars magnifying five, ten, and fifteen
times, respectively.

There are limits to the resolving power of the microscope, even with

the best lens systems available. As long as the increase in magnification

results in better vision of an object and more definite separation of detail,

the magnification may be said to be "useful. " When the object merely

becomes larger without any increase in resolving power, the magnification is "empty." So-called
empty magnifications of great magnitude are possible.

For practical purposes the upper limit of "useful" magnification with

the polarizing microscope is about 1800 :1.5 Larger magnifications, as

usually reported, are the result of some form of projection or special

equipment in which the exact limits of useful magnification are not

clearly known. A common form of projection is the enlargement employed in taking
photomicrographs. Photomicrographs taken with a

camera having a long bellows may increase the magnification ratio given

by the microscope several times. Thus magnification ratios of 3000 : 1,

4000: 1, or even considerably higher may be obtained. Such increase in

magnification above the magnification of the microscope is essentially

enlargement and does not result in increase in resolution. From the

standpoint of increase in resolution or detail, it is "empty" magnification.

Enlarged photomicrographs of this type, however, may have value for

purposes of demonstration.

The limit of resolution for green light with a lens of N.A. 1.40 is said

to be approximately 0.18". This might be described as the distance apart

of two object points in the field of view of the microscope whose disk

images would just touch as projected to the eye. It has been shown

mathematically that the limit of resolution equals the wavelength divided

by twice the numerical aperture. From this relationship it is possible to

compute the number of lines per inch that can be separated by different

numerical apertures.

An accurate check of the magnification of the field of view in the

microscope may be obtained by using a stage micrometer. The stage

micrometer is a glass slide carefully ruled into hundredths of a millimeter

or 0.001 inch. It not only serves as a comparison object for determining

the magnification of the microscope but also may be used to give the

magnification of micro drawings, of micro projections, and of photo-

micrographs.
Analyzer: The nicol prism or polarizing plate mounted in the tube of

the microscope above the objective is known as the analyzer. The nicol

is carried on a sliding mount while in some models the

plate flips downward into the optical path. Either may be

inserted or withdrawn from the optical path at will. The plane of vibra-

tion is normal to the plane of the polarizer and is usually either perpendicular or horizontal in the
field of view. More elaborate microscopes

are fitted with a means of rotating the analyzer.

Polarizer: The prism or polaroid plate mounted in the substage system

is known as the polarizer. It may be set at any angle

through 3600 but is usually kept adjusted to a plane at right angles to

the plane of the analyzer. The cross hairs in the eyepiece are set parallel

to the two planes.

Amici-Bertrand Lens: This lens is inserted in the tube of the micro-

scope between the ocular and the analyzer . It serves to

bring the image of an interference figure into the focal plane of the

ocular. The device was originally used by Amici (1844) and was later

adapted by Bertrand (1878).

Interference figures may be observed without the Amici-Bertrand lens

If the ocular is removed. For superior results, an Amici-Bertrand lens with

focusing diaphragm and an auxiliary magnifier to fit over the eyepiece

is used.

Condenser: Three components may be present in a condenser system

of the type selected for illustration. In ordinary examination with low-

power objectives a lens component with an illuminating aperture of

about 0.22 is used. III working with high power or in obtaining interference figures, another
condenser on a movable mounting

swings across the axis. This suffices for all objectives of N.A. up to 1.0.

In the case of higher numerical apertures a special lens is inserted in

place of the condenser in the movable mounting. This is more effective

if used with oil immersion.

Iris Diaphragm: The iris diaphragm is attached to the lower side of

the tube that holds the polarizer. It serves to reduce the cone of light,

lessening the illumination of the

field of view, and causes objects to

stand out with increased relief. The

diaphragm is useful in the applica-

tion of various tests when deter-

mining indices of refraction with

the microscope.
Mirror:The mirror is usually re-

versible, with one surface plane

and the other concave. The plane

mirror surface is suitable for low-

power microscopic work. The con-

cave mirror converges the light

upon the object. It is especially

useful in high-power examination.

It should also be used for low

power when the illuminator produces a convergent beam.

Fine Adjustment:It is advantageous to have the finest adjustment

graduated so as to permit the measurement of the displacement of the

tube to within 2.5p. (thousandths of a millimeter). The adjustment is

used both for measuring depth and for focusing on objects at high mag-

nifications.

Microscope Accessorie:. The accessories provided with the microscope

generally include a quartz wedge, gypsum plate, and mica plate. These

are marked with arrows indicating the fast- and slow-ray vibration direc-

tions and are mounted in frames to fit the opening in the tube of the

microscope between the objective and the analyzer.

The quartz wedge is ground to produce interference colors from the

beginning of the first to the end of the third or fourth order.

Berek Compensator:The com-

pensator is designed to fit the

tube slit above the objective in

the same opening used for the

gypsum and the mica plates. It is

employed in the determination of

the order of interference colors

between crossed nicols.

A calcite plate with the c-axis

vertical is inserted in the acces-

sory slot of the microscope. The

plate forms a window in the com-

pensator and is rotated by turn-

ing a graduated drum. The com-

pensator is rotated

until the color of the mineral is

neutralized (becomes gray) . The

rolation of the compensator necessary to bring this about is a

measure of the retardation.

Object Slide: Various lengths

and widths of object slides may

be used, but the thickness is of

greater importance. Immersion

condensers are made to work to

best advantage with slides from

0.9 to 1.0 mm thick.Thus slides

Intended for study at high magnifications should conform to this

Ithickness the most satisfactory results are to be secured.

Cover Glass: Objectives usually employed for thin-section work are

corrected by the manufacturers for a cover-glass thickness of from

0.15 to 0.17 mm. It is assumed that the top of the slice is pressed

directly against the bottom of the cover glass. In case the slide is

poorly mounted and a space intervenes between the top of the slice and

the bottom of the cover glass, the extra distance should be considered

as so much additional thickness of cover glass. In order to obtain the

best results with objectives, cover glasses of standard thickness should

be employed.