Unit-3 Data Graphics
Short Essays
1. What characteristics of data can be represented by a) Histogram b) Pie
Chart c) Semi-Logarithmic Plots.
Or
Describe the construction of any three types of graphical
representation of statistical data with suitable examples.
Histograms are plots of continuous data and are often used to
represent frequency distributions, where the y-axis shows the number
of times a particular measurement or value was obtained. For this
reason, they are often called frequency histograms.
Important features of this type of graph include:
The data are numerical and continuous (e.g. height or weight) so
the bars touch. (A column graph from Excel can be made into a
histogram).
The x-axis usually records the class interval. The y-axis usually
records the number of individuals in each class interval
(frequency).
Pie Graphs can be used instead of bar graphs, generally in cases
where there are six or fewer categories involved. A pie chart compares
parts to a whole. As such it shows a percentage distribution. The entire
pie represents the total data set and each segment of the pie is a
particular category within the whole. So, to use a pie chart, the data
you are measuring must depict a ratio or percentage relationship. You
must always use the same unit of measure within a pie chart.
Otherwise your numbers will mean nothing.
Features of pie graphs include:
Pie charts are a visual way of displaying data that might otherwise
be given in a small table.
Pie charts are useful for displaying data that are classified into
nominal or ordinal categories. Nominal data are categorised
according to descriptive or qualitative information such as county
of birth or type of pet owned. Ordinal data are similar but the
different categories can also be ranked, for example in a survey
people may be asked to say whether they classed something as
very poor, poor, fair, good, very good.
Pie charts are generally used to show percentage or proportional
data and usually the percentage represented by each category is
provided next to the corresponding slice of pie.
Pie charts are good for displaying data for around 6 categories or
fewer. When there are more categories it is difficult for the eye to
distinguish between the relative sizes of the different sectors and
so the chart becomes difficult to interpret.
In a semilogarithmic graph, one axis has a logarithmic scale and
the other axis has a linear scale. In the following set of axes, the
vertical scale is logarithmic (equal scale between powers of 10) and
the horizontal scale is linear (even spaces between numbers). There
are no negative numbers on the y-axis, since we can only find the
logarithm of positive numbers.
2. What are the general rules for constructing and labeling a graph?
Write a note on Semi-logarithmic Plot.
Proper construction and labeling of graphs are crucial elements in graphical data representation.
The design and actual construction of graphs are not in themselves difficult. The preparation of a
good graph, however, requires careful thought and competent technical skills. One needs not
only a knowledge of statistical principles, but also, in particular, computer and drafting
competency. There are no firm rules for preparing good graphical presentations. Mostly, we rely
on experience and a few guidelines. Both books and research papers have addressed the need
for a more scientific guide to optimal graphics that, after all, is measured by how well the graph
communicates the intended messages(s) to the individuals who are intended to read and
interpret the graphs. Still, no rules will cover all situations. One must be clear that no matter how
well a graph or chart is conceived, if the draftsmanship and execution is poor, the graph will fail
to achieve its purpose.
A “good” graph or chart should be as simple as possible, yet clearly transmit its intended
message. Superfluous notation, confusing lines or curves, and inappropriate draftsmanship
(lettering, etc.) that can distract the reader are signs of a poorly constructed graph.
Proper construction and labeling of the typical rectilinear graph should include the following
considerations:
a) A title should be given. The title should be brief and to the point, enabling the reader to
understand the purpose of the graph without having to resort to reading the text. The
title can be placed below or above the graph.
b) The axes should be clearly delineated and labeled. In general, the zero (0) points of both
axes should be clearly indicated. The ordinate (the Y axis) is usually labeled with the
description parallel to the Y axis. Both the ordinate and abscissa (X axis) should be each
appropriately labeled and subdivided in units of equal width (of course, the X and Y axes
almost always have different subdivisions.
c) The numerical values assigned to the axes should be appropriately spaced so as to nicely
cover the extent of the graph. This can easily be accomplished by trial and error and a
little manipulation. The scales and proportions should be constructed to present a fair
picture of the results and should not be exaggerated so to prejudice the interpretation.
Sometimes, it may be necessary to skip or omit some of the data to achieve this
objective. In these cases, the use of a “broken line” is recommended to clearly indicate
the range of data not included in the graph.
d) If appropriate, a key explaining the symbols used in the graph should be used.
e) In situations where the graph is derived from laboratory data, inclusion of the source of
the data (name, laboratory notebook number, and page number, for example) is
recommended.
3. How histograms, scatter plots and semi-logarithmic plots are useful in
presenting the data?
Or
Describe the construction of any three types of graphical
representation of statistical data with suitable examples.
Histograms are plots of continuous data and are often used to
represent frequency distributions, where the y-axis shows the number
of times a particular measurement or value was obtained. For this
reason, they are often called frequency histograms.
Important features of this type of graph include:
The data are numerical and continuous (e.g. height or weight) so
the bars touch. (A column graph from Excel can be made into a
histogram).
The x-axis usually records the class interval. The y-axis usually
records the number of individuals in each class interval
(frequency).
The scatter plots (also called correlation diagrams or scatter diagrams) at this time. This type of
plot or diagram is commonly used when presenting results of experiments. Data are collected in
pairs (X and Y) with the objective of demonstrating a trend or relationship (or lack of
relationship) between the X and Y variables. Usually, we are interested in showing a linear
relationship between the variables (i.e., a straight line). For example, one may be interested in
demonstrating a relationship (or correlation) between time to 80% dissolution of various tablet
formulations of a particular drug and the fraction of the dose absorbed when human subjects
take the various tablets. The data plotted pictorially that as dissolution increases (i.e., the time
to 80% dissolution decreases) in vivo absorption increases. Scatter plots involve data pairs, X and
Y, both of which are variable. In this example, dissolution time and fraction absorbed are both
random variables.
In a semilogarithmic graph, one axis has a logarithmic scale and
the other axis has a linear scale. In the following set of axes, the
vertical scale is logarithmic (equal scale between powers of 10) and
the horizontal scale is linear (even spaces between numbers). There
are no negative numbers on the y-axis, since we can only find the
logarithm of positive numbers.
Short notes
1. Define histogram.
Histograms are plots of continuous data and are often used to
represent frequency distributions, where the y-axis shows the number
of times a particular measurement or value was obtained. For this
reason, they are often called frequency histograms.
Important features of this type of graph include:
The data are numerical and continuous (e.g. height or weight) so
the bars touch. (A column graph from Excel can be made into a
histogram).
The x-axis usually records the class interval. The y-axis usually
records the number of individuals in each class interval
(frequency).
2. Advantages and disadvantages of Pie charts.
Or
What are disadvantages of Pie charts?
The following are advantages and disadvantages of pie chart
Advantages
• display relative proportions of multiple classes of data
• size of the circle can be made proportional to the total
quantity it represents
• summarize a large data set in visual form
• be visually simpler than other types of graphs
• permit a visual check of the reasonableness or accuracy of
calculations
• require minimal additional explanation
• be easily understood due to widespread use in business
and the media
Disadvantages
• do not easily reveal exact values
• Many pie charts may be needed to show changes over time
• fail to reveal key assumptions, causes, effects, or patterns
• be easily manipulated to yield false impressions
3. Define scatter plots
The scatter plots (also called correlation diagrams or scatter
diagrams) at this time. This type of plot or diagram is commonly used
when presenting results of experiments. Data are collected in pairs (X
and Y) with the objective of demonstrating a trend or relationship (or
lack of relationship) between the X and Y variables. Usually, we are
interested in showing a linear relationship between the variables (i.e.,
a straight line).
4. Define semi logarithmic plots
In a Semilogarithmic graph, one axis has a logarithmic scale and the
other axis has a linear scale. In the following set of axes, the vertical
scale is logarithmic (equal scale between powers of 10) and the
horizontal scale is linear (even spaces between numbers). There are
no negative numbers on the y-axis, since we can only find the
logarithm of positive numbers.
5. Applications of semi-logarithmic plots
The semilogarithmic plot is useful when the response (Y) is best
depicted as proportional changes relative to changes in X, or
when the spread of Y is very large and cannot be easily depicted
on a rectilinear scale. Semilog graph paper has the usual equal
interval scale on the X axis and the logarithmic scale on the Y
axis. In the logarithmic scale, equal intervals represent ratios.
It is used in the case where the data range on one axis is
extremely large and/or does not follow a linear progression.
A semi-log graph or semi-log plot is a way of visualizing data that
are related according to an exponential relationship. One axis is
plotted on a logarithmic scale. This kind of plot is useful when
one of the variables being plotted covers a large range of values
and the other has only a restricted range – the advantage being
that it can bring out features in the data that would not easily be
seen if both variables had been plotted linearly.
6. General rules for constructing and labeling a graph.
Proper construction and labeling of the typical rectilinear graph should
include the following considerations:
a) A title should be given. The title should be brief and to the point,
enabling the reader to understand the purpose of the graph
without having to resort to reading the text. The title can be
placed below or above the graph.
b) The axes should be clearly delineated and labeled. In general,
the zero (0) points of both axes should be clearly indicated. The
ordinate (the Y axis) is usually labeled with the description
parallel to the Y axis. Both the ordinate and abscissa (X axis)
should be each appropriately labeled and subdivided in units of
equal width (of course, the X and Y axes almost always have
different subdivisions.
c) The numerical values assigned to the axes should be
appropriately spaced so as to nicely cover the extent of the
graph. This can easily be accomplished by trial and error and a
little manipulation. The scales and proportions should be
constructed to present a fair picture of the results and should
not be exaggerated so to prejudice the interpretation.
Sometimes, it may be necessary to skip or omit some of the data
to achieve this objective. In these cases, the use of a “broken
line” is recommended to clearly indicate the range of data not
included in the graph.
d) If appropriate, a key explaining the symbols used in the graph
should be used.
e) In situations where the graph is derived from laboratory data,
inclusion of the source of the data (name, laboratory notebook
number, and page number, for example) is recommended.
7. Define scatter plots and semi logarithmic plots.
The scatter plots (also called correlation diagrams or scatter diagrams)
at this time. This type of plot or diagram is commonly used when
presenting results of experiments. Data are collected in pairs (X and Y)
with the objective of demonstrating a trend or relationship (or lack of
relationship) between the X and Y variables. Usually, we are interested
in showing a linear relationship between the variables (i.e., a straight
line).
In a semilogarithmic graph, one axis has a logarithmic scale and the
other axis has a linear scale. In the following set of axes, the vertical
scale is logarithmic (equal scale between powers of 10) and the
horizontal scale is linear (even spaces between numbers). There are
no negative numbers on the y-axis, since we can only find the
logarithm of positive numbers.
8. Define data graphics.
Data graphics, also known as graphical techniques, are graphics in the
field of statistics used to visualize quantitative data.
Graphical statistical methods have four objectives:[2]
The exploration of the content of a data set
The use to find structure in data
Checking assumptions in statistical models
Communicate the results of an analysis.
If one is not using statistical graphics, then one is forfeiting insight
into one or more aspects of the underlying structure of the data.
9. Define Pie chart
Pie Graphs can be used instead of bar graphs, generally in cases
where there are six or fewer categories involved. A pie chart compares
parts to a whole. As such it shows a percentage distribution. The entire
pie represents the total data set and each segment of the pie is a
particular category within the whole. So, to use a pie chart, the data
you are measuring must depict a ratio or percentage relationship. You
must always use the same unit of measure within a pie chart.
Otherwise your numbers will mean nothing.
