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CHAPTER 6 Laplace Transform

Major Changes
This chapter underwent some major changes regarding the order of the material and the
emphasis placed on the various topics.
In particular, Dirac’s delta was placed in a separate section. Partial fractions are now
considered earlier. Their importance in this chapter has been diminished, and they are
explained in terms of practical problems when they are needed, rather than in terms of
impractical theoretical formulas. Convolution and nonhomogeneous linear ODEs are now
considered earlier, whereas differentiation and integration of transforms (not of functions!)
appears later and in a lesser role.

SECTION 6.1. Laplace Transform. Inverse Transform. Linearity. s-Shifting,

page 221
Purpose. To explain the basic concepts, to present a short list of basic transforms, and to
show how these are derived from the definition.
Main Content, Important Concepts
Transform, inverse transform, linearity
First shifting theorem
Table 6.1
Existence and its practical significance
Comment on Table 6.1
After working for a while in this chapter, the student should be able to memorize these
transforms. Further transforms in Sec. 6.9 are derived as we go along, many of them from
Table 6.1.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.1, page 226

24 12 9
2. (t 2
3)2  t 4
6t 2  9; transform  5

 3 

s s s
1 1 1 s 32
4. sin2 4t  
 cos 8t; transform 
  
2 2 2s 2(s  64)
2
s(s  64)
2

1 1 1 1 5
6. e
t sinh 5t   (e 4t
e
6t); transform  ( 
 )   .
2 2 s
4 s6 (s  1)2
25
This can be checked by the first shifting theorem.
8. sin (3t
_12)  cos _12 sin 3t
sin _12 cos 3t; transform
3 cos _12
s sin _12

s2  9

1.6
10. 
s  0.04
2

6 6 3 1
12. (t  1)3  t 3  3t 2  3t  1; transform       
s4 s3 s2 s
117
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118 Instructor’s Manual

e
b

st
k
14. k dt   (e
as
e
bs)
a s
16. k(1
t/b); transform

e
(
1b ) e
b b b

st
t k t k
k (1
 ) dt 
 e
st (1
 ) j  
st
dt
0 b s b 0 s 0

k
  (bs  e
bs
1)
bs 2

e 1
e
bs be
bs
b
k
st
k
18.  t dt   ( 
 )
b 0 b s2 s

e
e
1 2

st
st
20. t dt  (2
t) dt. Integration by parts gives
0 1

e
stt 1

e e
st(2
t) 2

e
1 2
1
st
1
st

j   dt
 j
 dt
s 0 s 0 s 1 s 1

e
s 1
s e
s 1
2s



 2 (e
1)     (e
e
s)
s s s s2
1
s
2s
s
(1
e
s)2
  (
e  1  e
e )   .
s2 s2

22. Let st  , t  /s, dt  d/s. Then



(1/t) 
e
0

st
1/ 2
t dt


e
0


1
( /s)
1/ 2  d
s

 s
1/ 2
e 0


1/ 2
 d

 s
1/ 2(_12)  .

/s
2
24. No matter how large we choose M and k, we have et Mekt for all t greater than some
t0 because t 2
ln M  kt for all sufficiently large t (and fixed positive M and k).
26. Use eat  cosh at  sinh at.
28. Let ƒ 

1(F), g 

1(G). Since the transform is linear, we obtain
aF  bG  a
(ƒ)  b
(g) 
(aƒ  bg).
Now apply

1 on both sides to get the desired result,


1(aF  bG) 

1
(aƒ  bg)  aƒ  bg  a

1(F)  b

1(G).
Note that we have proved much more than just the claim, namely, the following.
Theorem. If a linear transformation has an inverse, the inverse is linear.
30. 2 cosh 4t  4 sinh 4t  3e 4t
e
4t
10 5
32.    . Answer 5e
t/2
2s  2
 s  1/2
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Instructor’s Manual 119

20 1 1
34.   4( 
 ) . Answer 4(et
e
4t)
(s
1)(s  4) s
1 s4
36. 4e
t  9e
4t  16 e
9t  25 e
16t
18s
12 2s
4/3
38.    . Answer 2 cosh _13t
4 sinh _13t
9s
1
2
s 2
1/9
1
40. If a b, then  (e
at
e
bt). If a  b, then te
bt by the shifting theorem (or
b
a
from the first result by l’Hôpital’s rule, taking derivatives with respect to a).

72
42. 
(s  0.5)5
s3
44. 
(s  3)2   2
46. a0 /(s  1)  a1/(s  1)2  • • •  n!an/(s  1)n1
48.  te
 t
50. et(cos 2t
_52 sin 2t)
52. e 3t(4 cos 3t  _10
3 sin 3t)

2s
56 2(s
2)
52
54.    . Answer
s
4s
12
2
(s
2)2
16
e 2t(2 cosh 4t
13 sinh 4t) 
_
11 6t
2 e  1_
5
2t
2 e

SECTION 6.2. Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs, page 227

Purpose. To get a first impression of how the Laplace transform solves ODEs and initial
value problems, the task for which it is designed.
Main Content, Important Concepts
(1)
(ƒ )  s
(ƒ)
ƒ(0)
Extension of (1) to higher derivatives [(2), (3)]
Solution of an ODE, subsidiary equation
Transform of the integral of a function (Theorem 3)
Transfer function (6)
Shifted data problems (Example 6)
Comment on ODEs
The last of the three steps of solution is the hardest, but we shall derive many general
properties of the Laplace transform (collected in Sec. 6.8) that will help, along with
formulas in Table 6.1 and those in Sec. 6.9, so that we can proceed to ODEs for which
the present method is superior to the classical one.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.2, page 232

Purpose of Probs. 1–8. 1. To familiarize students with (1) and (2) before they apply
these formulas to ODEs. 2. Students should become aware that transforms can often
be obtained by several methods.
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120 Instructor’s Manual

2. ƒ  t cos 5t, ƒ  cos 5t
5t sin 5t, ƒ 
10 sin 5t
25t cos 5t. Hence

50

(ƒ )  
25
(ƒ)  s 2
(ƒ)
s
0
1
s  25
2

and thus

50 s 2
25
(s 2  25)
(ƒ)   1  .
s  25
2
s 2  25
Answer
s 2
25

(ƒ)   .
(s 2  25)2

4. ƒ  cos2  t, ƒ 
2 cos  t sin  t 
 sin 2 t. Hence

2 2 s 2  4 2
2 2

(ƒ )    s
(ƒ)
1, s
(ƒ)   .
s 2  4 2 s 2  4 2
This gives the answer
s 2  2 2

(ƒ)   .
s(s 2  4 2)

6. ƒ  cosh2 _12t, ƒ  cosh _12t sinh _12t  _12 sinh t. Hence

1/2 _1  s 2
1
2

(ƒ )  s
(ƒ)
1   , s
(ƒ)   .
s2
1 s2
1
This gives the answer
s 2
_12

(ƒ)   .
s(s 2
1)

8. ƒ  sin4 t, ƒ  4 sin3 t cos t, ƒ  12 sin2 t cos2 t
4 sin4 t. From this and (2) it
follows that

(ƒ )  12
(sin2 t cos2 t)
4
(ƒ)  s 2
(ƒ).
Collecting terms and using Prob. 3 with  2 and sin 2  2 sin  cos , we obtain
3
8
(s 2  4)
(ƒ)  3
(sin2 2t)   .
s(s 2  16)
Answer
24

(ƒ)   .
s(s 2  4)(s 2  16)

10. sY
2.8  4Y  0, (s  4)Y  2.8, Y  2.8/(s  4), y  2.8e
4t

12. (s 2
s
6)Y  (s
3)(s  2)Y  6s  13
6  6s  7. Hence
6s  7 5 1
Y      
(s
3)(s  2) s
3 s2
and
y  5e 3t  e
2t.

14. (s
2)2Y  2.1s  3.9
4
2.1. Hence

2.1s
4.5 2.1(s
2)  4.2
4.5
Y     .
(s
2)2 (s
2)2
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Instructor’s Manual 121

This gives the solution

y  2.1e 2t
0.3te 2t
as expected in the case of a double root of the characteristic equation.
16. (s 2  ks
2k 2)Y  2s  2k  2k, Y  (2s  4k)/[(s
k)(s  2k)]  2/(s
k),
y  2ekt
18. We obtain
10
(s 2  9)Y   .
s1
The solution of this subsidiary equation is
10 1 s
1
Y    
 .
(s  1)(s 2  9) s1 s2  9
This gives the solution y  e
t
cos 3t  _13 sin 3t.
20. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2
6s  5)Y  3.2s  6.2
6
3.2  29s/(s 2  4).
The solution Y is
(3.2s
13)(s 2  4)  29s
Y   .
(s
1)(s
5)(s 2  4)
In terms of partial fractions, this becomes
1 2 0.2s
2.4
2
Y       .
s
1 s
5 s2  4
The inverse transform of this gives the solution
y  et  2e 5t  0.2 cos 2t
2.4 sin 2t.

22. t 
t  1, so that the “shifted problem” is

y
2y

3y
 0,

y(0) 
3,

y (0) 
17.
Hence the corresponding subsidiary equation is
(s 2
2s
3)Y

3s
17  6.
Its solution is

3s
11
Y
   
 .
2 5
(s  1)(s
3) s1 s
3
Inversion gives




y  2e
t
5e 3t.
This is the solution of the “shifted problem,” and the solution of the given problem is
y  2e
(t
1)
5e3(t
1).

24. t 
t  3, so that the “shifted equation” is

y  2y
 5y
 50t
.

The corresponding subsidiary equation is

[(s  1)2  4]Y

4s  14
2
4  50/s 2.
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122 Instructor’s Manual

Its solution is

Y
 
10 4 4

   .
s2 s (s  1)2  4
The inverse transform is


y  10t

4  2e
t sin 2t
.

Hence the given problem has the solution

y  10(t
3)
4  2e
(t
3) sin 2(t
3).

26. Project. We derive (a). We have ƒ(0)  0 and

ƒ (t)  cos t
t sin t, ƒ (0)  1

ƒ (t) 
2 sin t
2
ƒ(t).
By (2),

(ƒ ) 
2 
2

(ƒ)  s 2
(ƒ)
1.
s2  2
Collecting
(ƒ)-terms, we obtain

2 2 s2
2

(ƒ)(s 2  2
)   1   .
s2  2 s2  2
Division by s 2  2 on both sides gives (a).
In (b) on the right we get from (a)
s2
2

(sin t
t cos t)  
 .
s2  2 (s 2  2)2
Taking the common denominator and simplifying the numerator,

(s 2  2
)
(s 2
2
)2 3

we get (b).
(c) is shown in Example 1.
(d) is derived the same way as (b), with  instead of
, so that the numerator is

(s 2  )
2
(s 2
2
)  2 s 2,
which gives (d).
(e) is similar to (a). We have ƒ(0)  0 and obtain

ƒ (t)  cosh at  at sinh at, ƒ (0)  1

ƒ (t)  2a sinh at  a ƒ(t). 2

By (2) we obtain
2a 2

(ƒ )    a 2
(ƒ)  s 2
(ƒ)
1.
s2
a2
Hence
2a 2 s2  a2

(ƒ)(s 2
a 2)   2  1 
 .
s
a
2
s2
a2
Division by s 2
a 2 gives (e).
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Instructor’s Manual 123

(f) follows similarly. We have ƒ(0)  0 and, furthermore,

ƒ (t)  sinh at  at cosh at, ƒ (0)  0
ƒ (t)  2a cosh at  a ƒ(t)2

s

(ƒ (t))  2a   a 2
(ƒ)  s 2
(ƒ)
s
a2
2

2as

(ƒ)(s 2
a 2)   .
s
a2
2

Division by s 2
a 2 gives formula (f).

28. We start from
1


1 (  )  e t
s

and integrate twice. The first integration gives
1
 (e t
1).

Multiplication by 10 and another integration from 0 to t gives the answer
10 10t
2 (e t
1)
 .
 
30. The inverse of 1/(s 2  1) is sin t. A first integration from 0 to t gives 1
cos t, and
another integration yields t
sin t.
32. The inverse of 2/(s 2  9) is _32 sin 3t. Integration from 0 to t gives the answer
_2(1
cos 3t)  _4 sin2 _3t.
9 9 2
1
34. The inverse of 1/(s 2   2) is  sin  t. A first integration from 0 to t gives

1
2 (1
cos  t).

Another integration gives the answer
1 1
2 (t
 sin  t) .
 

SECTION 6.3. Unit Step Function. t-Shifting, page 233

Purpose
1. To introduce the unit step function u(t
a), which together with Dirac’s delta
(Sec. 6.4) greatly increases the usefulness of the Laplace transform.
2. To find the transform of
0 (t  a), ƒ(t
a) (t a)

if that of ƒ(t) is known (“t-shifting”). (“s-shifting” was considered in Sec. 6.1.)

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124 Instructor’s Manual

Main Content, Important Concepts

Unit step function (1), its transform (2)
Second shifting theorem (Theorem 1)
Comment on the Unit Step Function
Problem Set 6.3 shows that u(t
a) is the basic function for representing discontinuous
functions.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.3, page 240

2. t(1
u(t
1))  t
[(t
1)  1]u(t
1). Hence the transform is

1 e
s e
s


 .
s2 s2 s
4. (sin 3t)(1
u(t
))  sin 3t  u(t
) sin 3(t
). Hence the transform is
3
 (1  e
 s).
s 9
2

6. We obtain
t 2u(t
3)  [(t
3)2  6(t
3)  9]u(t
3).
Hence the transform is
2 6 9
(     ) e
3s.
s3 s2 s
8. (1
e
t)(1
u(t
))  1
e
t
(1
e
(t
)
)u(t
). Hence the
transform is
1 1 e
s 1


  e
  e
s.
s s1 s s1
10. u(t
6/ ) sin t  u(t
6/ ) sin ( t
6). Hence the transform is

 e
6s/ .
s2  2
12. _12(et
e
t)(1
u(t
2))  _12(et
e
t)
_12(e(t
2)2
e(
t2)
2)u(t
2). Hence
the transform is
1 1 1 1 1 e2 e
2




 ( 
 ) e
2s.
2 s
1 2 s1 2 s
1 s1
Alternatively, by using the addition formula (22) in App. 3.1 we obtain the transform
in the form
1 cosh 2 s sinh 2

(   ) e
2s.
s2
1 s2
1 s2
1
14. s/(s 2  2) has the inverse cos t. Hence ƒ(t)  0 if t  1 and cos (t
1) if t 1.
16. t
[(t
1)  1]u(t
1)  t
t u(t
1); hence ƒ(t)  t if 0  t  1 and 0 if t 1.
18. 1/(s 2  2s  2)  1/[(s  1)2  1] has the inverse e
t sin t. Hence the given transform
has the inverse
e
(t
) sin (t
)u(t
) 
e
t sin t u(t
)
which is 0 if t   and
e
t sin t if t .
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Instructor’s Manual 125

20. The inverse transform is

ekt if 0  t  1.
e kt

e e u(t
1)  {
k(t
1) k

0 if t 1.
22. The inverse transform is 2.5(u(t
2.6)
u(t
3.8)), that is, 2.5 if 2.6  t  3.8
and 0 elsewhere.
24. (9s 2
6s  1)Y  27s  9
18  27s
9. Hence
27s
9 3s
1 3
Y     1 2  
_ .
9s
6s  1
2
(s
3) s
_13
Hence the answer is y  3et/3.
288 19 190
26. (s 2  10s  24)Y  (s  4)(s  6)Y   3   s
5   . Division by
s 12 12
s 2 10s  24 and expansion in terms of partial fractions gives
12 5 19/12
Y  3
 2   .
s s s
Hence the answer is y  6t 2
5t  _ 19
12 . Note that it does not contain a contribution
from the general solution of the homogeneous ODE.
28. The subsidiary equation is
1 e
s
(s 2  3s  2)Y  
 .
s s
It has the solution
1
e
s 1 1 1
Y    (   
 ) (1
e
s).
s(s  3s  2)
2
2s 2(s  2) s1
This gives the answer
y  _12  _12e
2t
e
t
(_12  _12e
2(t
1)
e
(t
1))u(t
1);
that is,
_1  _1 e
2t
e
t if 0  t  1
2 2
y {_1
2 e
2t(1
e 2)
e
t(1
e) if t 1.
30. The subsidiary equation is
48
(s 2
16)Y   (1
e
45  8)  3s
4.
s
2
Now
48
  3s
4
s
2 3 4 4
    

s
16
2
s4 s
4 s
2
has the inverse transform y1  3e
4t  4e 4t
4e 2t. This is the solution for
0  t  4. The solution for t 4 is

y  y2  e
4t(3
e 24)  e 4t(4
3e
8).

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126 Instructor’s Manual

In y2 the e 2t-term has dropped out. The result can be confirmed classically by noting
that we must have
y2(4)  y1(4)  3e
16  4e 16
4e 8
y 2(4)  y 1(4) 
12e
16  16e 16
8e 8.

32. r  35e 2t(1
u(t
2)). The subsidiary equation is

35
(s 2  8s  15)Y   (1
e
2(s
2))  3s
8  24.
s
2
Its solution is
3s 2  10s  3
35e
2s4
Y   .
s 3  6s 2
s
30
The inverse transform of Y is
y  e 2t  2e
5t  u(t
2)(
e 2t
_52e
5t14  _72e
3t10).
Thus,
e 2t  2e
5t if 0  t  2
y {
e
5t(2
_52e 14)  _72e
3t10 if t 2.
34. t    t, y  2y  5y  r, r  10[
1  u(t
)] sin
t,








y(0)  1,
y (0) 
2  2e
. The solution in terms of
t is

y(t
)  e
t
 sin 2t
 cos
t
2 sin
t

 u(t

)[e
t(
cos 2t
 _12 sin 2t
)
cos
t  2 sin
t ].
In terms of t,
y(t)  e
t sin 2t
cos t  2 sin t

 u(t
2)[e
t2(
cos 2t  _12 sin 2t)  cos t
2 sin t].

i() d  100(u(t
0.5)
u(t
0.6)). Divide by 10 and take the

t
36. 10i  100
0
transform, using Theorem 3 in Sec. 6.2,
10 10
I   I   (e
0.5s
e
0.6s).
s s
Solving for I 
(i) gives
10
I   (e
0.5s
e
0.6s).
s  10
The inverse transform is
i(t)  10(e
10(t
0.5) u(t
0.5)
e
10(t
0.6) u(t
0.6)).
Hence
i(t)  0 if t  0.5
i(t)  10e
10(t
0.5) if 0.5  t  0.6
i(t)  10(e
10(t
0.5)
e
10(t
0.6))

 10e
10t(e 5
e 6)

2550e
10t if t 0.6.
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Instructor’s Manual 127

Jumps occur at t  0.5 (upward) and at t  0.6 (downward) because the right side
has those jumps and the term involving the integral (representing the charge on the
capacitor) cannot change abruptly; hence the first term, Ri(t), must jump by the
amounts of the jumps on the right, which have size 100, and since R  10, the current
has jumps of size 10.
38. We obtain
se
4s
12 2
106 6
105
I  14
105   ( 
 ) e
4s
12
(s  10)(s  3) s  10 s3
hence
i  u(t
4) [2
106e
10(t
4)
12
6
105e
3(t
4)
12].

40. i  1000i  40 sin t u(t
). The subsidiary equation is

e
s
sI  1000I 
40  .
s2  1
Its solution is

40e
s
40e
s 1 s
1000
I     ( 
 ).
(s  1) (s  1000)
2
1 000 001 s  1000 s2  1
The inverse transform is
40 40 000
i  u(t
) [
 (cos t  e
1000(t
))   sin t] ;
1 000 001 1 000 001
hence i  0 if t  , and i  0.04 sin t if t .
42. i  4i  200(1
t 2)(1
u(t
1)). Observing that
t 2  (t
1)2  2(t
1)  1,
we obtain the subsidiary equation
1 2
s
2 2
(s 2  4)I  200( 
 3 )  200e ( 2 
 ).
s s s s3
Its solution is
s 2
2  e
s(2s  2) 3 4 3s
I  200   25 ( 
 3
 )
s (s  4)
3 2
s s s 4
2

1 4 4 s
4
 25e
s (
       ).
s s2 s3 s2  4
Its inverse transform is
i  75
50t 2
75 cos 2t
 u(t
1)[
75  50t 2  25 cos (2t
2)
50 sin (2t
2)].

44. 0.5i  20i  78 cos t (1
u(t
)). The subsidiary equation is

78s
(0.5s 2  20)I   (1  e
s).
s 1
2

Its solution is
156s(1  e
s) 1 1
I    4s ( 
 ) (1  e
s).
(s 2  1)(s 2  40) s2  1 s 2  40
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128 Instructor’s Manual

Its inverse transform is

t
4u(t
) [cos t  cos (40
i  4 cos t
4 cos 40 (t
))].

i() d  34e
t

t
46. i  4i  20 (1
u(t
4)). The subsidiary equation is
0
20 34
(s  4   ) I   (1
e
4s
4).
s s1
Its solution is
34s
I   (1
e
4s
4).
(s  1)(s  4s  20)
2

The inverse transform is

i 
2e
t  e
2t(2 cos 4t  9 sin 4t)
 u(t
4) [2e
t4  e
2(t
2)(2e
t
2 cos 4(t
4)
9 sin 4(t
4)].

SECTION 6.4. Short Impulses. Dirac’s Delta Function. Partial Fractions,

page 241
Purpose. Modeling of short impulses by Dirac’s delta function (also known as unit
impulse function). The text includes a remark that this is not a function in the usual sense
of calculus but a “generalized function” or “distribution.” Details cannot be discussed on
the level of this book; they can be found in books on functional analysis or on PDEs. See,
e.g., L. Schwartz, Mathematics for the Physical Sciences, Paris: Hermann, 1966. The
French mathematician LAURENT SCHWARTZ (1915–2002) created and popularized the
theory of distributions. See also footnote 2.
Main Content
Definition of Dirac’s delta (3)
Sifting property (4)
Transform of delta (5)
Application to mass–spring systems and electric networks
More on partial fractions (Example 4)
For the beginning of the discussion of partial fractions in the present context, see Sec. 6.2.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.4, page 247

2. The subsidiary equation is

1
(s 2  2s  2)Y  1    5e
2s
1s
where the 1 comes from y (0). The solution in terms of partial fractions is
1 1 s1 5e
2s
Y    
   .
(s  1)2  1 1s (s  1)2  1 (s  1)2  1
Hence the inverse transform (the solution of the problem) is
y  e
t sin t  e
t
e
t cos t  5e
(t
2) sin (t
2) u(t
2).

4. The subsidiary equation is

10
(s 2  3s  2)Y  s
1  3    10e
s.
s2  1
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Instructor’s Manual 129

In terms of partial fractions, its solution is

2 6 3s
1 1 1
Y   
  10 ( 
 ) e
s.
s2 s1 s 1
2
s1 s2
Its inverse transform is
y 
2e
2t  6e
t
3 cos t  sin t  10u(t
1) [e
t1
e
2(t
1)].
Without the -term, the solution is
3 cos t  sin t
2e
2t  6e
t and approaches
a harmonic oscillation fairly soon. With the -term the first half-wave has a maximum
amplitude of about 5, but from about t  8 or 10 on its graph coincides practically
with the graph of that harmonic oscillation (whose maximum amplitude is 10 ). This
is physically understandable, since the system has damping that eventually consumes
the additional energy due to the -term.
6. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2  2s
3)Y  s  2  100(e
2s  e
3s).
The solution is
s  2  100(e
2s  e
3s)
Y   .
(s
1)(s  3)
Its inverse transform gives the solution of the problem,
y  _14(e
3t  3et)
25u(t
2) (e
3t6
et
2)
 25u(t
3) (
e
3t9  et
3).
Without the factor 100 the cusps of the curve at t  2 and t  3 caused by the delta
functions would hardly be visible in the graph, because the solution increases
exponentially. Solve the problem without the factor 100.
8. The subsidiary equation is
s
(s 2  5s  6)Y  e
 s/2
 e
 s.
s 1
2

Its solution is
1 1 0.4 0.3 0.1(s  1)
Y  ( 
 ) e
 s/2
(
     ) e
 s.
s2 s3 s2 s3 s2  1
The inverse transform of Y is
y  u(t
_12) [e
2t
e
3t3 /2]

0.1u(t
) [
4e
2t2  3e
3t3
cos t
sin t].

This solution is zero from 0 to _12 and then increases rapidly. Its first negative
half-wave has a smaller maximum amplitude (about 0.1) than the continuation as a
harmonic oscillation with maximum amplitude of about 0.15.
10. This is Prob. 9 without the damping term. The subsidiary equation is
25
(s 2  5)Y 
2s  5  
100e
 s.
s2
Its solution is

2s  5 25 100
Y   
 e
 s.
s2  5 s 2(s 2  5) s2  5
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130 Instructor’s Manual

The partial fraction reduction of the second term on the right is

1 1
5 ( 2
 ).
s s 5
2

The inverse transform of Y is (note that the sine terms cancel)

 u(t
) sin (5
y 
2 cos t5  5t
205  (t
)).
The graph begins at t  0 according to 5t
2 cos t5 (the solution without the
-term) and then starts oscillating with maximum amplitude of about 40 about
the straight line given by 5t. Since there is no damping, the energy corresponding
to the -term imposed at t   will not disappear from the system; hence we obtain
the indicated oscillations. See the figure.

80

60

40

20

0 t
2 4 6 8 10

–20

Section 6.4. Problem 10

12. The subsidiary equation is

2
(s 2  1)Y  1
  10e
 s.
s 1
2

Its solution is
1 2 10
Y 
   e
 s.
s2  1 (s 2  1)2 s2  1
The inverse transform of Y is
y  sin t
(sin t
t cos t)
10u(t
) sin t
 t cos t
10u(t
) sin t.
We see that we have a resonance term, t cos t. At t   the graph has a sharp cusp
and then shows the oscillations with increasing maximum amplitude to be expected
in the case of resonance. See the figure.
14. CAS Project. Students should become aware that careful observation of graphs may
lead to discoveries or to more information about conjectures that they may want to
prove or disprove. The curves branch from the solution of the homogeneous ODE at
the instant at which the impulse is applied, which by choosing, say, a  1, 2, 3, • • • ,
gives an interesting joint graph.
16. Team Project. (a) If ƒ(t) is piecewise continuous on an interval of length p, then its
Laplace transform exists, and we can write the integral from zero to infinity as the
series of integrals over successive periods:


e
e


p 2p 3p

st
st

(ƒ)  ƒ(t) dt  ƒ dt  e
stƒ dt  e
stƒ dt  • • • .
0 0 p 2p
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Instructor’s Manual 131

20

10

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 t

–10

–20

Section 6.4. Problem 12

If we substitute t    p in the second integral, t    2p in the third integral,

• • • , t    (n
1)p in the nth integral, • • • , then the new limits in every integral
are 0 and p. Since
ƒ(  p)  ƒ(), ƒ(  2p)  ƒ(),
etc., we thus obtain

e
e
e
p p p

s
s(p)
s(2p)

(ƒ)  ƒ() d  ƒ() d  ƒ() d  • • • .
0 0 0

The factors that do not depend on  can be taken out from under the integral signs;
this gives

e
p

s

(ƒ)  [1  e
sp  e
2sp  • • •] ƒ() d.
0

The series in brackets [• • •] is a geometric series whose sum is 1/(1
e
ps). The
theorem now follows.
(b) From (11) we obtain

/
1

(ƒ)   e
st sin t dt.
1
e
2 s/ 0
Using 1
e
2s/  (1  e
 s/ )(1
e
 s/ ) and integrating by parts or noting that
the integral is the imaginary part of the integral

/
1 /

s
i
e(
si )t
dt   e(
si )t
j   (
e
s/
1)
0
s  i 0 s2  2
we obtain the result.
(c) From (11) we obtain the following equation by using sin t from 0 to / and

sin t from / to 2/ :
1  e s/ e
 s/2  e s/2
 2 
 s/   2 
s 
2
e
1 s 
2
e s/2
e
 s/2
cosh ( s/2 )
  2  .
s 
2
sinh ( s/2 )
This gives the result.
(d) The sawtooth wave has the representation
k
ƒ(t)   t if 0  t  p, ƒ(t  p)  ƒ(t).
p
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132 Instructor’s Manual

Integration by parts gives

e
e
p p p

st
t 1
t dt 
 e
st j  
st
dt
0 s 0 s 0

p 1
sp

 e
sp
 (e
1)
s s2
and thus from (11) we obtain the result
k ke
ps

(ƒ)  
 (s 0).
ps 2 s(1
e
ps)

(e) Since kt/p has the transform k/ps 2, from (d) we have the result
ke
ps
 (s 0).
s(1
e
ps )

SECTION 6.5. Convolution. Integral Equations, page 248

Purpose. To find the inverse h(t) of a product H(s)  F(s)G(s) of transforms whose
inverses are known.
Main Content, Important Concepts
Convolution ƒ
g, its properties
Convolution theorem
Application to ODEs and integral equations
Comment on Occurrence
In an ODE the transform R(s) of the right side r(t) is known from Step 1. Solving the
subsidiary equation algebraically for Y(s) causes the transform R(s) to be multiplied by
the reciprocal of the factor of Y(s) on the left (the transfer function Q(s); see Sec. 6.2).
This calls for the convolution theorem, unless one sees some other way or shortcut.
Very Short Courses. This section can be omitted.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.5, page 253

(t
) d  t2
t3  t6

t 3 3 3
2. t
t 
0

4.
e e d  e
e
t t bt
a b(t
)
e (a
b)
1
bt
d   (e (a
b)t

1)   (eat
ebt)
0 a
b
0 a
b

6. 1
ƒ(t) 
ƒ() d
t

0
8. By the definition and by (11) in App. 3.1 we obtain

sin  cos (t
) d  _
sin t d  _
sin (2
t) d.

t t t
1 1
2 2
0 0 0

Integration of this gives

t
_1 t sin t  [_1 (
cos (2
t))]j  _1 t sin t
_1 [cos t
cos (
t)].
2 4 2 4
0
Hence the answer is _1 t sin t.2
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Instructor’s Manual 133

e
t

10.
(1)
(et), 1
et  d  et
1
0

e
t
2
t t 1 1
12. t
e 2t  (t
) d   (e 2t
1)
 e 2t   e 2t

0 2 2 4 4
t 1 1

   e 2t

2 4 4

cos 4 sin 4(t
) d. Use (11) in App. 3.1 to convert the
t

14. _14(cos 4t)
(sin 4t)  _14

0
product in the integrand to a sum and integrate. This gives

12 (sin 4t  sin (4t
8)) d  8t sin 4t  

t
1 1
 (cos 4t
cos (
4t)).
4 0 64
t
Hence the answer is  sin 4t, in agreement with formula 22 in Sec. 6.9.
8

sin  sin 5(t
) d. Using formula (11) in App. 3.1, convert
t

16. (sin t)
(sin 5t) 

0
the product in the integrand to a sum and integrate, obtaining

[
cos (5t
4)  cos (
5t  5)] d

t
_1
2
0
t

 _12[
_14 sin (
5t  4)  _16 sin (6
5t)]j

0

 _81(sin t
sin 5t)  _

12 (sin t  sin 5t)
1

_ _
24 sin t
24 sin 5t.
5 1

18. The subsidiary equation is

1
(s 2  1)Y  
s2  1
and has the solution
1
Y   .
(s  1)2
2

Since the inverse of 1/(s 2  1) is sin t, the convolution theorem gives the answer

sin  sin (t
) d
t
y  (sin t)
(sin t) 
0


_12t cos t  _12 sin t.

20. The subsidiary equation is

2
(s  1)(s  4)Y   .
s2
Its solution is
2
Y   .
(s  1)(s  2)(s  4)
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134 Instructor’s Manual

Two applications of the convolution theorem thus give

(2
e e
t p


2p2
(2e
t
e
2t)
e
4t  d)e
4t4p dp
0 0


(2e
2e
t

p
2p
)e
4t4p dp
0
2 1
  e
t
e
2t   e
4t.
3 3
22. The subsidiary equation is
1
e
as
(s 2  3s  2)Y   .
s
Now
1 1 1 1
    
 .
s  3s  2
2
(s  1)(s  2) s1 s2
The inverse transform of this is e
t
e
2t. Hence, since r(t)  1 if t  a and 0
thereafter, this gives


r(t)
(e
t
e
2t)  (e
(t
)
e
2(t
)) d

 e
(t
)
_12e
2(t
).
If t  a, the limits of integration are 0 and t; this gives
y(t)  1
e
t
_12  _12e
2t  _12
e
t  _12e
2t.
If t a, we integrate from 0 to a, obtaining
y(t)  e
(t
a)
e
t
_12e
2(t
a)  _12e
2t.
Using the subsidiary equation (above) and a partial fraction expansion, we obtain
1 1 1
Y  (1
e
as) (   
 )
2s 2(s  2) s1
and the same expressions for y(t).
24. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2  5s  6)Y  s  5  e
3s.
Its solution is
s  5  e
3s 3 2 1 1
Y    
  ( 
 ) e
3s.
(s  2)(s  3) s2 s3 s2 s3
The inverse transform of the first two terms on the right is
3e
2t
2e
3t.
The inverse transform of the last two terms can be obtained by the second shifting
theorem or by convolution. By convolution we use the sifting property, formula (4)
in Sec. 6.4. We obtain

[e
t

2(t
 )
(t
3)
(e
2t
e
3t) 
e
3(t
 )](
3) d.
0

For t  3 this gives 0. For t 3 we obtain

e
2(t
3)
e
3(t
3).
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Instructor’s Manual 135

26. Team Project. (a) Setting t
  p, we have   t
p, d 
dp, and p runs

from t to 0; thus

ƒ()g(t
) d 
g(p)ƒ(t
p) (
dp)

t 0

ƒ
g
0 t


g(p)ƒ(t
p) dp  g
ƒ.
t

(b) Interchanging the order of integration and noting that we integrate over the shaded
triangle in the figure, we obtain
(ƒ
g)
v  v
(ƒ
g)

v(p)

t t
p

 ƒ()g(t
p
) d dp
0 0

ƒ()

t t


 g(t

p)v(p) dp d
0 0

 ƒ
(g
v).

t
p=t–␶
␶=t–p

0
0 t p

Section 6.5. Team Project 26(b)

(c) This is a simple consequence of the additivity of the integral.

k
1
(d) Let t k. Then (ƒk
ƒ)(t)   ƒ(t
) d  ƒ(t

t ) for some
t between 0
0 k
and k. Now let k * 0. Then t * 0 and ƒk(t

t ) * (t), so that the formula


follows.
(e) s 2Y
sy(0)
y (0)  2Y 
(r) has the solution
1 s y (0)
Y  ( )
(r)  y(0)    
s2  2 s2  2 s2  2
etc.
28. The integral equation can be written
y(t)  y(t)
cosh t  t  et.
This implies by the convolution theorem that its transform is
s 1 1
Y  Y  2   .
s
1
2
s s
1
The solution is
s2
1 1 1 1 1
Y   (2  ) 
 2 
 .
s s
1 s
2
s
1 s s
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136 Instructor’s Manual

Hence its inverse transform gives the answer y(t)  t  1. This result can easily be
checked by substitution into the given equation and integration.
2s s 2  2s  1 s
30. Y   Y   Y  , hence
s 1
2
s 1
2
s 1
2

1 1
Y 
 .
s1 (s  1)2

This gives the answer y  (1
t)e
t.

1 2 1
32. Y (1
 2 ) 

 , hence
s s s3
2s 2
1 1 s
Y       .
s(s 2
1) s s2
1

The answer is y  1  cosh t.

1 2 1 1 1 4
34. Y (1   )   3

 2
   , Y 
 , y  2t 2
s
2 s s 2s 2(s
2) s3

SECTION 6.6. Differentiation and Integration of Transforms. ODEs with

Variable Coefficients, page 254
Purpose. To show that, roughly, differentiation and integration of transforms (not of
functions, as before!) corresponds to multiplication and division, respectively, of functions
by t, with application to the derivation of further transforms and to the solution of
Laguerre’s differential equation.
Comment on Application to Variable-Coefficient Equations
This possibility is rather limited; our Example 3 is perhaps the best elementary example
of practical interest.
Very Short Courses. This section can be omitted.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.6, page 257

s s 2
4
2s 2 s2  4
2. (  )   

s
4
2
(s
4)
2 2
(s 2
4)2

4. By the addition formula for the cosine we have

cos (t  k)  cos t cos k
sin t sin k.

The transform of this function is

s cos k
sin k
 .
s2  1
The derivative times
1 is
cos k (s 2  1)
(s cos k
sin k)2s

 .
(s 2  1)2
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Instructor’s Manual 137

Simplification gives the answer

(s 2
1) cos k
2s sin k
 .
(s 2  1)2

6. We need two differentiations. We can drop the two minus signs. Starting from the
transform of sin 3t, we obtain
3
6s
( )  (  )
s 9
2
(s  9)2
2

6(s 2  9)2  6s
2(s 2  9)
2s

 
(s 2  9)4

6s 2
54  24s 2
 
(s 2  9)3
18(s 2
3)
  .
(s 2  9)3
n! 1
8.
(t nekt)   n1 can be obtained from
(e )   by n subsequent
kt
(s
k) s
k
differentiations,
1 (n)

1 (n
1)
(
1)nn!
()  ( )  • • •  
s
k (s
k)2 (s
k)n1
and multiplication by (
1)n (to take care of the minus sign in (1) in each of the n steps),
or much more simply, by the first shifting theorem, starting from
(t n)  n!/sn1.
s s 2  2
2s 2 s2
2
10.
(  ) 
  
s2  2 (s 2  2)2 (s 2  2)2
1 2(s  k)
12.
(  )  
(s  k)2  1 ((s  k)2  1)2
14. By differentiation we have
4
8s
( )   .
s 2  16 (s 2  16)2
Hence the answer is _81t sin 4t. By integration we see that
 s
_1

s

(s
2  16)2

 
ds
2

s 2  16
has the inverse transform _81 sin 4t and gives the same answer. By convolution,

cos 4 sin (4t
4) d

t
(cos 4t)
(_14 sin 4t) 
0

and gives the same answer.

16. By differentiation
1
2s
( )   .
s
1
2
(s
1)2
2

This shows that the answer is _12t sinh t.

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138 Instructor’s Manual

 
sa
18. ln   ln (s  a)
ln (s  b) 

sb

s
d
 
a

s
d
 . This shows that
b
the answer is (
e
at  e
bt)/t.
s 1/

20. (arccot  ) 
   shows that the answer is (sin t)/t.
s 2 s2  2
1  ()

22. CAS Project. Students should become aware that usually there are several
possibilities for calculations, and they should not rush into numerical work before
carefully selecting formulas.
(b) Use the usual rule for differentiating a product n times. Some of the polynomials
are
l2  1
2t  _12t 2
3l  1
3t  _3t 2
_1 t 3
2 6

l4  1
4t  3t
_32t 3  _
2 1 4
24 t

l5  1
5t  5t 2
_35t 3  _ _
24 t
120 t .
5 4 1 5

SECTION 6.7. Systems of ODEs, page 258

Purpose. This section explains the application of the Laplace transform to systems of
ODEs in terms of three typical examples: a mixing problem, an electrical network, and a
system of several (two) masses on elastic springs.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.7, page 262

2. The subsidiary equations are

sY1
1  5Y1  Y2
sY2  3  Y1  5Y2.
The solution is
s
8 (s
5)
3
Y1    
(s
5)
1
2
(s
5)2
1

3s  16
3(s
5)  1
Y2     .
(s
5)2
1 (s
5)2
1
The inverse transform is
y1  e 5t cosh t
3e 5t sinh t  2e 4t
e 6t
y2 
3e 5t cosh t  e 5t sinh t 
2e 4t
e 6t.

4. The subsidiary equations are

sY1  Y2  1
2s
Y1  sY2   .
s2  1
The solution is
s 1
Y1   , Y2   .
s 1
2
s2  1
The inverse transform is y1  cos t, y2  sin t.
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Instructor’s Manual 139

6. The subsidiary equations are

8s
sY1  4Y2

s 2  16
36
sY2  3
3Y1
 .
s 2  16
The solution is
4 3s
Y1   , Y2   .
s  16
2
s  16
2

The inverse transform is y1  sin 4t, y2  3 cos 4t.

8. The subsidiary equations are

sY1 
3  6Y1  Y2
sY2 
3  9Y1  6Y2.
The solution is

3s  15 2 1
Y1   


s 2
12s  27 s
9 s
3

3s
9 6 3
Y2   
   .
s 2
12s  27 s
9 s
3

The inverse transform is

y1 
2e 9t
e 3t, y2 
6e 9t  3e 3t.

10. The subsidiary equations are

sY1  4
2Y1  3Y2

sY2  3  4Y1
Y2.
The solution is
4s  13 3 1
Y1      
s 2  3s
10 s
2 s5
3s  22 4 1
Y2    
.
s 2  3s
10 s
2 s5

The inverse transform is

y1  3e 2t  e
5t, y2  4e 2t
e
5t.

12. The subsidiary equations are

sY1  2  2Y1  Y2
1 1
sY2  4Y1  2Y2  64e
s (   ) .
s2 s
The solution is
1 2 32e
s 1 1
Y1  2[ 
   (  2   )]
s
4 s(s
4) s
4 s s3
1 8e
s 1 1 2
Y2  8[    ( 

 )] .
s(s
4) s
4 s s2 s3
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140 Instructor’s Manual

Using partial fraction expansions

1 2 1 1

    
s
4 s(s
4) 2(s
4) 2s
and
1 1 5 20 16 5
64 (    )


  
s 2(s
4) s 3(s
4) s s2 s3 s
4
which because of e
s gives the inverse transform

5
20(t
1)
8(t
1)2  5e4(t
1)
and similarly for the expressions in Y2, we obtain the inverse transforms of Y1 and
Y2 in the form
y1  1  e 4t  u(t
1) [
8t 2
4t  7  5e4 t
4]
y2 
2  2e 4t  u(t
1) [16t 2
8t
18  10e4 t
4].
14. The subsidiary equations are
sY1  1
Y2
2s 2e
2 ss
sY2 
Y1  
 .
s 1
2
s2  1
The solution is
s(s 2
1  2e
2 s)
Y1  
s4
1
s 2se
2 s
   
s2  1 s4
1
s 1/2 1/2 s
   e
2 s (   
 )
s 1
2
s
1 s1 s 1
2

s 2
1
2s 2e
2 s
Y2  
s4
1
1 1 1 1 1
   e
2 s (  ( 
 )
 ).
s 1
2
2 s1 s
1 s 1
2

The inverse transform is

y1  cos t  u(t
2) [
cos t  _12(e
t2  et
2 )]
y  sin t  u(t
2) [
sin t  _1 (e
t2
et
2 )].
2 2

Thus y1  cos t and y2  sin t if 0  t  2; y1  cosh (t
2), and

y2 
sinh (t
2) if t 2.
16. The subsidiary equations are
s 2Y1  s
2Y1  2Y2
s 2Y2  3s  2Y1
5Y2.
The solution is
s(s 2  11) 2s s
Y1    

s  7s 2  6
4
s2  1 s2  6
s(3s 2  8) s 2s
Y2       .
s  7s 2  6
4
s2  1 s2  6
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Instructor’s Manual 141

Hence the inverse transform is

y1  2 cos t
cos t6

, y2  cos t  2 cos t6
.

18. The subsidiary equations are

1010
s 2Y1  6
Y2

s  100
2

1010
s 2Y2  8s
6
Y1   .
s  100
2

The solution is, in terms of partial fractions,

4 10 4s
Y1      
s
1 s  100
2
s 1
2

4 10 4s
Y2  
   .
s
1 s  100
2
s 1
2

The inverse transform is

y1 
4et  sin 10t  4 cos t

y2  4et
sin 10 t  4 cos t.

20. The subsidiary equations are

4sY1
8  sY2
2sY3  0

1

2sY1  4  sY3  
s
16
2sY2
4sY3 
2 .
s
The solution is
1 1 2 1 4
Y1  2 (    ), Y2   , Y3   2 
 .
s s3 s2 s s3
The inverse transform is
y1  2  t 2, y2  2t, y3  t  2t 2.

22. The subsidiary equations are

11
s 2Y1
s
1 
8Y1  4Y2  
s 1
2

11
s 2Y2
s  1 
8Y2  4Y1
 .
s 1
2

The solution, in terms of partial fractions, is

s 1
Y1    
s2  4 s2  1
s 1
Y2  
 .
s2  4 s2  1
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142 Instructor’s Manual

The inverse transform is

y1  cos 2t  sin t
y2  cos 2t
sin t.
24. The new salt contents are
y1  100
62.5e
0.24t
37.5e
0.08t
y2  100  125e
0.24t
75e
0.08t.
Setting 2t   gives the old solution, except for notation.
26. For 0  t  2 the solution is as in Prob. 25; for i1 we have
i1 
26e
2t
16e
8t  42 cos t  15 sin t.
For t 2 we have to add to this further terms whose form is determined by this
solution and the second shifting theorem,
u(t
2) [26e
2t4  16e
8t16
42 cos t
15 sin t].
The cosine and sine terms cancel, so that
i1 
26(1
e4)e
2t  16(1
e16)e
8t if t 2.
Similarly, for i2 we obtain

26e
2t  8e
8t  18 cos t  12 sin t
i2  {

26(1
e4)e
2t  8(1
e16)e
8t.

SOLUTIONS TO CHAP. 6 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS, page 267

2
12.  , one of the transforms in Table 6.1
(s  1)2  4
14. cos2 4t  _1  _1 cos 8t. The transform is
2 2

1/2 s/2 s 2  32
     .
s s  64
2
s(s 2  64)

16. u(t
2) sin t  u(t
2) sin (t
2). Hence the transform is e
2 s/(s 2  1).
18. sin t has the transform /(s 2  2), and cos t has the transform s/(s 2  2). Hence,
by convolution, the given function
(sin t)
(cos t)  _1 t sin t
2
has the transform
s
 .
(s 2  2)2
2s
20.  . Problems 17–22 illustrate that sums of expressions can often be combined
s4
1
to an expression of a new form. This motivates that, conversely, partial fraction
expansions are helpful in finding inverse transforms.
s s 3s
22. 
  
s
4
2
s
1
2
(s
4)(s 2
1)
2

24. 7.5 sinh 2t

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Instructor’s Manual 143

3s 3(s
1)  3
26.    . Hence the inverse transform is
s
2s  2
2
(s
1)2  1

3et(cos t  sin t).

2s
10 2 10
28.  3   2

 . This shows that the inverse transform is
s s s3
u(t
5) [2(t
5)
5(t
5)2]
 u(t
5) [
5t 2  52t
135].

30. The given transform suggests the differentiation

s s 2  16
s
2s s 2
16
( )   

s 2  16 (s 2  16)2 (s 2  16)2
and shows that the answer is t cos 4t.
_
32. 4(t  3t 4  6t 2)
1 6

1 1/2
34.    . Hence 2e
t/ 2 sin _12 t.
2s  2s  1
2
(s  1/2)2  1/4
36. y 
cos 4t  u(t
) sin 4t. To see the impact of 4(t
), graph both the solution
and the term
cos 4t, perhaps in a short t-interval with midpoint .
38. y  0 if 0  t  2 and 1
cos (t
2) if t 2
40. y  e
2t(13 cos t  11 sin t)  10t
8
42. Y  e
s/(s
1)2, y  et
1(t
1)u(t
1)
44. y  cos 2t  _12[u(t
)
u(t
2)] sin 2t. The curve has cusps at t   and 2
(abrupt changes of the tangent direction).
46. y1  8et
5e
2t
18t
3, y2  32et
5e
2t
42t
27
48. y1  _12u(t
) sin 2t, y2  u(t
) cos 2t. Hence y1 is continuous at , whereas
y2 has an upward jump of 1 at that point.
50. y1  3e 4t  e
4t
2 cos 4t  sin 4t, y2  3e 4t  e
4t  2 cos 4t
sin 4t
52. 0.5q  50q  1425(1
u(t
)) sin 5t. The subsidiary equation is
1  e
 s
_1 s 2Q  50Q  1425
5  .
2
s 2  25
The solution is

1  e
 s 14250 1 1
Q  14250    (1  e
 s) ( 
 ).
(s  25)(s 2  100)
2
75 s 2  25 s 2  100

The inverse transform is

q 
19 sin 10t  38 sin 5t  u(t
) (
19 sin 10t
38 sin 5t).
Thus the superposition of two sines terminates at t  , and
38 sin 10t continues
thereafter.
54. The system is
2i 1  i1
i2  90e
t/4
i 2
i 1  2i2  0.
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144 Instructor’s Manual

The subsidiary equations are

90
2sI1  I1
I2  
s  1/4
sI2
2
sI1  2I2  0.
The solution is
184s  361 59 140 140
I1   

  
4s 3  9s 2  6s  1 (s  1)2 s1 s  1/4
8s 2  186s  1 59 22 20
I2      
 .
4s 3  9s 2  6s  1 (s  1)2 s1 s  1/4
The inverse transform is
i1 
(59t  140)e
t  140e
t/4
i2  (59t  22)e
t
20e
t/4.